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HMI Primary Survey (1978) Notes on the text
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Primary education in England
A survey by HM Inspectors of Schools (1978) London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office 1978
Chapter 7 Associations between characteristics of the schools and classes and aspects of the children's work
i GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 7.1 The size of the sample used for this survey makes it possible to identify associations between some characteristics of the schools and classes and certain aspects of the children's work. These associations may reflect underlying causal relationships but this cannot be deduced from the information. Other unexamined factors undoubtedly affect the picture. Also, as information was collected at one point in time the survey is not a suitable vehicle for deciding which factors may be causes and which the effects. Specially designed studies would be necessary to throw light on whether the associations discussed in this chapter reflect causal relationships. (1) 7.2 Comparisons were made to establish whether the extent to which the children's work was well matched to their abilities varied with the length of the teaching experience of the class teacher. A breakdown of 1 up to 5 years, 5 up to 15 years, and 15 years or more of teaching experience was used. There were too few probationary teachers to include them. No differences were found in relating match to the length of teaching experience. Similarly the age range for which the teacher had initially trained was not found to be associated with the extent to which work was well matched to children's abilities. If the effect had been pronounced it would, no doubt, have been identified. (2) ii. THE LOCALITY OF THE SCHOOLS 7.3 Some factors remain the same, or much the same, during the period a child is in the primary school. Most children remain in the same area and so the locality, and to a lesser extent the size and the type of school, whether a combined junior with infant school or separate junior and separate infant schools, are fairly constant factors. Of these, the locality of the school was found to be by far the most dominant characteristic. Inner city schools 7.4 The average pupil teacher ratio in inner city schools was very similar to that in rural schools. The class size was larger because, unlike heads in small rural schools, the heads in inner city schools, which on average are larger, were not usually responsible for a class. (3) Also inner city schools were more likely to deploy teachers in other ways, including the withdrawal of groups of children from other classes for remedial purposes. Both the pupil teacher ratio and class size were generally more favourable in inner city schools than in schools in 'other urban' areas. The turnover of teachers was not noticeably higher in inner city schools than in other schools during the period for which information was collected (4) and, as in other schools, it tended to decline during that period. (5) 7.5 Resources and equipment were generally less satisfactory in inner city schools than in the schools in 'other urban' areas, although there were some schools in inner city areas which were particularly well equipped. The small number of schools inspected within any single local education authority area makes it impossible to distinguish whether these exceptions resulted from good management within an individual school or from provision by an authority because of special circumstances, for example the designation of some schools as being in social priority areas. 7.6 During the survey, three fifths of the inner city schools were recorded as being in areas of marked social difficulty; though these schools are not necessarily those designated by local education authorities as being in social priority areas there is undoubtedly a fairly close correspondence. The more favourable pupil teacher ratio found in the schools recorded as being in areas of marked social difficulty seems to be a reflection of the allocation of additional resources to schools in social priority areas. (6) Perhaps surprisingly, these schools did not overall appear to receive more time from peripatetic teachers or more non-teaching ancillary help than other schools. Rural schools 7.7 A very substantial majority of the schools in rural areas were small, one form entry or less, combined junior with infant schools. The pupil teacher ratio in rural schools was very similar to that of inner city schools, though they were likely to have smaller classes with a wider age range of children within each class. (7) This is accounted for by the fact that in small rural schools, the teachers, including heads, almost all took responsibility for a class. While the turnover of teachers in rural schools was not noticeably different from that in other areas, (8) there were a number of small schools which had no changes of teacher during the period for which information was collected. Only a tenth of rural schools were classified as being in areas of marked social difficulty. 7.8 There was some evidence that, as compared with classes in inner city and 'other urban' areas, classes in rural schools paid more attention to spoken language. The teachers were more likely to read or tell stories to the children and the children in rural classes had more opportunity to talk informally to one another during the course of their work. The immediate outdoor environment of the school was used more often for educational purposes in rural classes than in others. Understandably, because of the distances and costs involved, rural classes made fewer visits to places such as museums or historical buildings. 7.9 Opportunities for some kinds of physical education were more limited in rural than in other schools. This was due partly to the small number of children of a given age, which made some forms of team games impracticable, and to the absence of a hall in a number of small schools, which reduced the opportunities for gymnastics and dance, particularly when poor weather limited the use of outdoor space. Schools in 'other urban' areas 7.10 Schools in 'other urban' areas had a less favourable pupil teacher ratio and a larger average class size than schools in inner city or rural areas. (9) Schools in 'other urban' areas, which tended also to be larger schools, were rather better equipped, particularly for work in science, art and music, than schools in other areas. Music generally, and particularly singing, was given more emphasis in classes in 'other urban' schools than in others. There was also some evidence that these schools paid more attention to children's written work as a basis for learning language, including spelling, syntax and style, and as a means of monitoring children's progress in their English language work. A comparison of NFER scores for classes in different localities (10) 7.11 Average NFER scores for classes of 9 and 11 year olds in inner city, 'other urban' and rural areas were compared. (11) The results indicate that the average reading scores for 9 and 11 year old classes and mathematics scores for 11 year old classes were significantly lower for classes in inner city schools than for classes in rural and 'other urban' schools. 7.12 A further analysis was carried out within each type of locality which indicated that these differences were not accounted for by the size or the type of school, in combined junior with infant schools 11 year old classes in inner city areas registered significantly lower reading and mathematics scores than classes in combined junior with infant schools in 'other urban' areas. 7.13 Assessments of the match between the work children were doing and that which they were considered capable of doing (12) were also compared for each locality. There were some indications that the work given to children in classes in inner city schools at 7, 9 and 11 years old was more likely to be too easy for them. However, these differences were not large enough to be statistically significant. iii. TYPES OF SCHOOL 7.14 Most separate junior and separate infant schools were two form entry or larger and were mainly found in inner city and 'other urban' areas. Small, one form entry or less, combined junior with infant schools predominated in rural areas and were rarely found in 'other urban' areas. (13) These overlapping factors have to be borne in mind when comparing one type of school with another. In order to exclude as far as possible differences arising from locality and size, only two-form entry schools were considered when comparing types of school. Two-form entry schools were distributed in reasonably similar proportions among different school types within each locality and were sufficiently numerous to allow analysis. (14) 7.15 Taking 'other urban' and rural areas together, the curriculum of the 7 and 11 year olds in separate junior and separate infant schools was more likely to cover a broad range of the widely taught items in mathematics than that of the 7 and 11 year old classes in combined junior with infant schools. (15) The same was true of geography and history for 9 and 11 year old classes in separate junior schools. On the other hand, children of 9 and 11 years of age in combined junior with infant schools made more use of three dimensional constructional materials, although 7 year old classes in separate infant schools were likely to be better equipped for work in art and crafts. 7.16 There were no significant differences in the NFER scores for children of 9 and 11 years of age in the different types of schools. Overall, only slight differences were found when comparing the work of children in combined junior with infant schools with those in separate infant and separate junior schools. In general, the differences between individual schools were more marked than any systematic differences attributable to the size or type of school. iv. ORGANISATION OF CLASSES AND ARRANGEMENTS FOR TEACHING Size of class 7.17 In order to examine the association of class size with NFER mean scores, the classes of 11 year olds were grouped into size bands. (16) This preliminary analysis appears to indicate that the larger the class size, the better the NFER reading scores. 7.18 However, it was known from previous analysis (17) that the locality of the school was an important factor in influencing test performance. The comparisons were therefore repeated for each locality separately. (18) This analysis too seems to indicate a slight positive relationship between increasing class size and NFER scores in inner city schools but not in the other localities. Overall, for the 11 year olds, there was no evidence of a consistent relationship between class size and improved NFER reading scores. Similarly, no firm trends were identified in the analysis of mathematics scores at 11 years old or reading scores at 9 years old. The age range of classes 7.19 Some schools have so few pupils and teachers that they have no choice but to arrange children in classes which cover more than one school year group. Other schools have sufficient classes to separate the age groups but may prefer not to do so. In some cases these 'mixed age' classes amount to no more than an arrangement to keep the numbers in classes fairly even; in other instances the mixture of age groups is deliberate policy and is often referred to as vertical or 'family' grouping. (19) 7.20 When match assessments (20) were compared for single age and 'mixed age' classes it was found that for 7 and 11 year olds the single age classes showed a definite superiority in relating the difficulty of the work to children's capabilities at all ability levels. The 11 year olds in single age classes also produced better NFER scores for reading and mathematics than children in 'mixed age' classes. For 9 year old children there was no significant difference in the match assessments, although single age classes tended to show slightly better match than mixed age classes; the difference in NFER scores, though smaller than with the 11 year olds, favoured single age classes and was statistically significant. (21) This may reflect the fact that 9 year old children were to be found in classes with either younger or older children, while 7 and 11 year olds in 'mixed age' classes were normally placed with children of a younger age range. 7.21 The survey did not include classes for children of 5 and 6 years old for whom vertical grouping is sometimes introduced to overcome the problems arising from taking new children into the school each term. Termly entry may result in children being transferred to a new class after only a few months, and in these circumstances the advantages of continuity in the same class may well outweigh any disadvantages arising from an increased age range within the class. However, in view of the findings relating to 7 year olds, it would appear that a single age class has advantages for these pupils and that teachers are better able to match the difficulty of work to their capabilities, at all ability levels, in a single age class than when they are placed in a vertically grouped class with younger children. Streaming of classes by ability 7.22 The proportion of classes streamed by ability at 11 years of age was too small to form a group which could reliably be compared with 'mixed ability' classes. (22) However, when the NFER scores in reading and mathematics for the streamed classes were omitted from the calculations there was virtually no change in the average scores obtained by 11 year old children. Grouping by ability within a class 7.23 The number of classes where children were grouped by ability for their work in English language and mathematics was so large that no reliable comparison could be made with other classes in which children were not grouped by ability. (23) Individual assignments of work 7.24 The use of individual assignments of work for English language and mathematics, whether presented by the teacher or through the use of textbooks or assignment cards, was so common in 11 year old classes that no reliable comparison could be made with classes in which teachers did not employ this method of organising work. (24) In 9 year old classes the work was slightly better matched to children's abilities in these subjects where it was presented by individual assignments, but the position was reversed for the 7 year old classes. v. TEACHING METHODS AND RANGE OF WORK 7.25 A broad categorisation of teaching approaches observed in the survey is described in Chapter 3 v. Teachers in a minority of classes employed a combination of didactic and exploratory approaches; in these classes the work children were given to do was better matched to their capabilities for the less able, average and more able than in those classes using mainly didactic or mainly exploratory methods. 7.26 In the smallest group of classes, one in twenty, which relied on a mainly exploratory approach the children scored less well in the NFER tests in reading and mathematics. There was also some indication that the work was least well matched to the children's abilities in these classes although the number of classes involved was too small for formal analysis. 7.27 In classes where a didactic approach was mainly used, better NFER scores were achieved for reading and mathematics than in those classes using mainly exploratory approaches. The NFER scores for the group of classes using mainly didactic approaches were only marginally lower than for the children in the classes using a combination of exploratory and didactic methods; the difference was not statistically significant. 7.28 A quiet working atmosphere was established whenever necessary in a very substantial majority of the classes in each of the three age groups. In the small number of classes where this did not happen the work was less well matched to the children's capabilities at all ages for all ability levels. In the case of 9 and 11 year olds, the average NFER scores for children in these classes compared poorly with those of the children in the majority of classes. 7.29 In connection with children's NFER scores in reading and mathematics a wide range of variables was tested. All which showed a strong association with higher scores are mentioned here. Predictably, variables tended to cluster and classes which made use of one variable tended also to undertake activities relating to others. 7.30 Higher average NFER reading scores for 9 year olds were associated with those classes where children made good use of book collections or libraries and, in the case of 11 year olds, with those using good quality work cards. Stories and poems were read to children in a higher proportion of the classes with above average NFER reading scores than in other classes. 7.31 Better average NFER scores in mathematics were associated with those 11 year old classes where skills were regularly practised from the blackboard. In these classes attention was also likely to be given to the recognition of mathematical relationships. More of these classes made use of visual presentation including models, maps and scale drawings, and the children practised calculations involving the four rules of number applied to whole numbers, decimals and fractions. Better average NFER scores were also associated with those classes where children undertook practical activities, as well as calculations, involving the four rules of number. 7.32 It should not however be assumed that increasing the practice in relation to one particular activity necessarily improves the children's performance. The indications are rather that giving reasonable attention to a range of different activities is more likely to be effective. 7.33 It was found that children in those 9 and 11 year old classes which covered most of the widely taught items (25) achieved better average NFER reading and mathematics scores than children in other classes where the coverage was less broad. (26) In these classes the work was also better matched to the children's capacities for all abilities in each age group. This would seem to suggest that in those classes where a reasonable coverage of widely taught items was achieved, the work was more likely to be pitched at the right level for the abilities of the children and that this, in turn, was associated with higher NFER scores for reading and mathematics. vi. TEACHERS WITH SPECIAL RESPONSIBILITIES 7.34 Over half the 9 and 11 year old classes and two fifths of the 7 year old classes were taught music by a teacher other than their own class teacher. (27) In the case of music, when other teachers undertake this task this is usually because they have some degree of expertise in this subject which the class teacher does not have. In 9 and 11 year old classes the work in music was better matched to the children's capabilities where they were taught by another teacher than in those classes of the same age taught music by their own class teacher. This was not the case in 7 year old classes. 7.35 Lastly, a comparison was carried out to see whether there was an association between the degree of influence of teachers holding posts which carried special responsibilities in the school and the work of the children. (28) 7.36 A 'match rating' was calculated for each class and it was found that where teachers who held posts carrying special responsibilities had a strong influence in the school this was very strongly associated with good match for all ages and all abilities. (29) This was particularly noticeable in the case of the more able children where the work was considerably better matched to their abilities when teachers with special responsibilities had a strong influence in the school. 7.37 These findings suggest that where a teacher with a special responsibility is knowledgeable and able to give a strong lead in planning and carrying out a programme of work, this is effective in influencing the work of other teachers in the school. This in turn would appear to raise the levels of expectations of what children are capable of doing, particularly in relation to the more able children, who were often the least likely to be given work which would extend them intellectually.
Annex to Chapter 7 Note 1
Note 2
Note 3
(b) The average size of class in each locality (*) Note 4
Note 5
Note 6
Note 7
Note 8
Note 9
Note 10
The maximum size of the age group, within 'mixed age' classes of 26 to 36 or more pupils, was set at 15. Thus 'mixed age' and single age classes were defined as follows. This ensured that no effects due to very small classes obscured the analysis and that a clear distinction between the two types of class organisation was preserved. NFER Scores for mixed age and single age classes Note 11
*See Chapter 6 i, paragraph 5 Note 12
*See Appendix G In practice virtually no over expectation was recorded, so a low match rating implied under expectation. Rating groups were chosen on statistical grounds and can be interpreted as shown in the bottom table. Note 12 (a)
Note 12 (b)
Note 12 (c)
Footnotes (1) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 1. (2) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 2. (3) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 3. (4) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 4. (5) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 5. (6) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 6. (7) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 3. (8) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 4. (9) See Annex to Chapter 1, Note 3. (10) NFER scores refers to reading test NS6 at 11 years old, reading test BD at 9 years old and mathematics test E2 at 11 years old. (See Chapter 6 iii and Appendix I). (11) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 7. (12) See Chapter 6 ii and Annex Tables 30-32. (13) See Annex to Chapter 2, Table 3. (14) The size of a school is defined as form of entry and not the total number of children on roll. A two-form entry infant school has fewer children on roll than a two-form entry combined junior with infant school. (15) 'Widely taught items' refers to those items occurring in 80 per cent or more of the classes listed in Chapter 6 i, paragraph 5. (16) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 8. (17) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 7. (18) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 9. (19) See Chapter 3 i, Figures 6 and 7. (20) See Chapter 6 ii and Annex Tables 30-32. (21) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 10. (22) See Annex to Chapter 3, Table 12. (23) See Annex to Chapter 3, Table 15. (24) See Annex to Chapter 3, Table 14. (25) 'Widely taught items' refers to those items occurring in 80 per cent or more of the classes listed in Chapter 6 i, paragraph 5. (26) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 11. (27) See Annex to Chapter 3, Table 20. (28) See Chapter 2 ii and 4 i. (29) See Annex to Chapter 7, Note 12. (30) See Chapter 2 ii and Annex to Chapter 2, Table 6. 
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