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Hadow (1933) Notes on the text
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The Hadow Report (1933)
Infant and Nursery Schools London: HM Stationery Office
Chapter 9 Summary of principal conclusions and recommendations
123. The following chapter contains some leading facts and conclusions deduced from the evidence of our witnesses. Those conclusions which involve definite action on the part of education authorities, school managers, teachers and others are printed in italics as substantive recommendations. I: The historical development 1. In the evolution of educational theory and practice since the beginning of the last [nineteenth] century the conception of the infant school as distinct from the elementary day school was present from the beginning of the movement for making educational provision on a large scale for the children of the poorer classes. Furthermore, the infant school was based on a richer and fuller educational tradition than that of the contemporary monitorial day schools. (Chapter 1, Sections 1-10). 2. By 1870 the value and significance of separate infant schools or of infant classes within the elementary day schools were generally recognised, and the adoption of the age of five as the lower limit for obligatory attendance at public elementary schools in the Elementary Education Act of 1870 made the infant school or department an integral part of the system of public elementary schools in England and Wales. (Chapter 1, Sections 11-16). 3. Since the early [eighteen] seventies a varying, but not inconsiderable proportion of children under the age of five has been admitted to the infant departments of public elementary schools in which provision has been made for them in the form of baby classes. Within the last few years, several authorities have taken steps to convert some of these baby classes into nursery classes by providing a large number of the amenities usually found in separate nursery schools. (Chapter 1, Sections 17-23). II: Age limits and organisation of the infant stage of primary education The lower age limit for obligatory attendance 4. Since the passing of the Elementary Education Act 1870, the lower age limit for compulsory attendance in England and Wales has been fixed at five. School attendance by-laws may provide that parents shall not be required to cause their children to attend school before the age of six. (1) In view of this provision, and of the fact that the attendance of children at school from the age of five has on the whole worked well in practice, we think that there is no good reason for modifying the existing law. (Chapter 4, Section 64). The lower age limit for voluntary attendance 5. As regards the question of the lowest age at which children may be admitted on a basis of voluntary attendance to infant schools we think that the practice of admitting them should continue as at present, and that the arrangement which has been in operation since 1872, under which no grant is paid in respect of children under the age of three, is sensible and reasonable. (2) (Chapter 4, Section 64). Grant regulations 6. We think that there is some substance in the suggestion that the expenditure basis of grant assessment, which has been adopted for nursery schools, should be extended to infant schools. Although the actual difference in average attendance for children below the age of seven and above that age is not great, the Board of Education might be well advised to make some allowance for the more frequent absences of very young children. (Chapter 4, Section 71). The upper age limit of the infant stage of primary education: continuity in primary education 7. We adhere to the opinion expressed in our report on The Primary School that children should be promoted from the infant school or department not later than between the ages of seven and eight. As we indicate below, primary education contains phases differing somewhat in content and method. But it is of the greatest importance that the primary stage of education (i.e. from the beginning of school life to the age of eleven) should be regarded as a continuous whole, and that there should be no abrupt break in the education of children under and over seven, and still less in the education of those under and over five. (Chapter 4, Section 65). Transfer from the nursery school or class to the infant department 8. At present the change from the nursery school or class to the ordinary work of the infant school is sometimes too abrupt, both in the general character of the activities and courses of instruction and in the methods of teaching. All reasonable means should be adopted to ease this transition. (Chapter 4, Section 65). Transfer from the infant stage to the upper stage of primary education 9. We reaffirm recommendation No. 6 in our report on The Primary School as to the importance of making the transition from the general treatment and methods of teaching in use in infant schools to those in use in the next stage of primary education easy and gradual. (Chapter 4, Section 65). 10. Where there are separate schools and not merely separate departments for infants, means should be adopted to bring the teachers together from time to time; joint staff meetings will be found necessary in order to ensure that free methods of teaching and discipline are continued, and suitable periods for out of door studies and relaxation are allowed, in the classes of the primary school which the children will enter on leaving the infant school. (Chapter 4, Section 65). The organisation of the lower stage of primary education 11. We reaffirm the recommendation which we made in our report on The Primary School, that in areas where it is possible, there should be separate schools or departments for children under the age of seven. We recognise that it is impracticable in the smaller rural schools to establish separate departments for pupils below the age of seven plus. We think, however, that in all primary schools (including even small rural schools), there should be a well defined line of demarcation between the younger and older children. (Chapter 4, Section 66). Retarded children in the lower stage of primary education 12. The limitations of the retarded child are not so conspicuous at the infant stage of primary education as at the age of eleven or later. Nevertheless, it is clearly important in the interest of these children that the main causes for their retardation should be discovered at as early a stage as possible in their school career. Our evidence supports the view expressed on page 36 of the Board's Handbook of Suggestions (1927), that 'the question of classification does not, as a rule, become urgent before the backward child has passed out of the Infants' stage. Whilst such children often receive special attention individually, it is rarely necessary to form a separate class for those who are backward.' We emphasise the importance of detecting early signs of retardation in children and of discovering the causes. We consider that separate classes or departments for retarded children in the infant stage are not necessary on educational grounds. (Chapter 4, Section 68). School records 13. While we deprecate any attempt to insist on the keeping of elaborate records, we consider it very important that some simple forms of school record should be regularly made. Two forms of record are necessary: (a) class records of children's work and progress; and (b) general records of children's development, etc. (Chapter 4, Section 69). (See also recommendation 63 below). Cooperation between parents and the school 14. As a result of effective cooperation between parents, teachers, doctors and school nurses, there has been a marked improvement alike in the health and cleanliness of the children, in the character of their clothing, and in the hygiene of the home. The character of the school as a social institution, and not merely as a place of instruction, finds expression in this active cooperation and the sharing of common interests. (Chapter 4, Section 70). III: The physical growth of children up to the age of seven 15. The processes of growth which operate in the human organism are more numerous, more delicately balanced, and more rapid during early childhood than at any other period of life. (Chapter 2, Section 27). 16. The effect of environment is most noticeable at the stage when growth is most active. The health of the mother during pregnancy, and of the child during its early years, are reflected in the physique, constitution, and health of the child in later years. (Chapter 2, Section 28). 17. Growth can only take place by the assimilation of food material. It is now generally recognised that an adequate diet must contain a sufficiency of mineral elements, vitamins, fluids, proteins, fats, and carbohydrates. (Chapter 2, Section 31). 18. The evidence of malnutrition in young children may be observed not only in their general physique and appearance, but in their response to effort. Inactivity and mental apathy in a child should call for an investigation of his dietary, both in its quantitative and qualitative aspects. The latter factor is of great importance, since food deficient in certain elements may not only be lacking in nutritive value, but may produce a loss of appetite, which in turn results in the food intake being inadequate. (Chapter 2, Sections 35 and 36). 19. The diet of many children, while adequate in other respects, is often seriously deficient in fats and vitamins. Cod liver oil will do much to supply what is lacking in this respect, but the need for its administration should seldom arise if the child's ordinary diet is varied and fresh. Where school meals are provided, these considerations should be borne in mind. The practice which obtains in many infant schools of giving children, particularly those below the age of five, a daily ration of milk in the course of the morning session has been attended with very satisfactory results. (Chapter 2, Section 37). 20. The maintenance of health demands that there should be a proper balance between exercise and rest. Any organ of the body which is not given sufficient exercise tends to degenerate, and the value of regular and frequent exercise is now generally recognised. On the other hand, many young children do not obtain sufficient sleep at night, and it is therefore most desirable that adequate facilities for sleep should be provided for children below the age of five in nursery schools and classes. Facilities for sleep should also be provided for some children above the age of five in infant schools. (Chapter 2, Sections 39 and 40, cf. Chapter 6, Section 96). (See also recommendation 54 below). 21. The years from the age of one to that of seven are the period during which the infectious diseases of childhood are most prevalent. The risk of the spread of infectious diseases among young children at school is largely reduced when the school buildings are designed on open-air lines and when there is an adequate allowance of cubic space for each child. The most important single factor in reducing the incidence of infectious disease is that the school should be of open-air design. (Chapter 2, Section 34). 22. Teachers in infant schools should be on the alert to detect even slight defects of vision or hearing, or any nervous peculiarities, and should bring them to the notice of the school doctor, as such defects are responsible for much that is mistakenly regarded as 'backwardness'. (Chapter 2, Sections 41 and 42). 23. The scientific evidence summarised in Chapters 2 and 3 shows the great importance of medical records. All children who, though not attending nursery schools or classes, continue their attendance at infant welfare centres, or who are supervised by health visitors, should have complete medical records which will be continued on their admission to the infant school. We think it important that any salient features of the child's physical development, medical history and home conditions should be noted also in the teacher's own records. It is essential, however, that when such records are passed on from teacher to teacher any information of a medical character should be treated as strictly confidential. (Chapter 4, Section 69). IV: The mental development of children up to the age of seven 24. Though, for purposes of scientific study, it is convenient to consider in turn the various aspects of the child's mental development, and to treat separately sensory and motor development, memory, reason and so forth, it must be borne in mind that these are only scientific abstractions - aspects artificially selected from the whole activity of the child. All the different aspects of his development are intimately and inextricably related. It should also be remembered that any generalisations drawn from the evidence regarding the mental development of children between the ages of two and seven plus are based on the average child. (Chapter 3, Section 46). (A) GENERAL MENTAL DEVELOPMENT UP TO THE AGE OF TWO 25. The growth of the child up to the age of two is marked by two very important developments - the acquisition of speech and the power to walk. Their effect on the child's intellect and character are very noticeable. No developments of like importance occur at later stages, and from the age of two there are no sudden changes in the mental development of the child. (Chapter 3, Sections 47 and 48). (B) MENTAL DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN THE AGES OF TWO AND FIVE The emergence of certain inherited tendencies and their significance in the child's daily life 26. During the earliest years certain innate tendencies such as eating, sleeping, excretion and the exercise of the sensory and muscular organs determine a large part of the natural activities of the child, and his mental health at this stage is closely bound up with the normal exercise of these functions. The later emotional development of the child will be considerably influenced by the way in which these activities are treated. (Chapter 3, Sections 51 and 52). The importance of an open air environment for young children 27. In the ordinary urban environment there is little to satisfy the child's natural impulses; it is important, therefore, to provide an environment which will do so, by keeping the children in the open air surrounded by trees, plants, animals, places that they can explore, pools in which they can paddle, and sand pits in which they can dig. (Chapter 3, Section 52). (See also recommendations 19 above and 47 below). Sensory development 28. Between the ages of two and five the child is gaining knowledge about the world around him through his senses, and is learning to exercise these senses in themselves, and more especially the sight, hearing, and touch (which is mainly muscle sense). The child's constant desire to look at things and to handle them should be restricted as little as possible, and in school the children should be surrounded with objects and materials which will afford scope for experiment and exploration. The chief need in training the senses is to teach the child to observe with discrimination what was previously unnoticed or confused, and to assist him to perceive what is to be learnt. The essential principles are to keep well within the range of the child's spontaneous interests and to give variety and meaning to his sense perception. (Chapter 3, Section 53, and Chapter 6, Section 86). Imagination and thought 29. Until the child has acquired sufficient language to enable him to think conceptually, his mental processes are mainly concerned with perceptions, feelings and fantasies, and his thinking remains imaginative rather than logical till he has attained the age of six or seven; but the world of fancy should not exclude the world of reality. (See recommendation 37 below). (Chapter 3, Section 54). Emotional development 30. The intensity of the child's emotional life reaches its zenith towards the end of the third year. This has to be taken into account when a child is separated from its home at an early age. When children go to school at the age of three, they generally show a tendency to cling to the grown-ups for attention and shelter, but by the middle of their fourth year they begin to display an interest in other children and learn to play happily among them. The social tendencies have not yet emerged to any considerable extent, and when children of this age form groups, such groups usually consist of two, three, or four at the most, and are very unstable. This stage affords an opportunity for the tactful leadership of a sympathetic teacher, under whose care the group feeling may be sustained with greater stability than if the children were left wholly to themselves. (Chapter 3, Section 55). (C) MENTAL DEVELOPMENT BETWEEN THE AGES OF FIVE AND SEVEN PLUS The development of elementary psychological capacities: sensation 31. Touch. In the sense of touch the young child in comparison with adults shows noticeable superiority, which is still manifest at the age of seven. Girls are usually more sensitive in this respect than boys. (Chapter 3, Section 56). 32. Hearing. The evidence indicates that in general up to the age of six or seven the sense of hearing has not yet reached its maximum power, though there are wide individual differences. The appreciation of rhythm is more acute than appreciation of melody or harmony. (Chapter 3, Section 56). 33. Sight. In early childhood the eye is an imperfect organ, naturally under-focused and ill adapted for close work or fine discrimination. It is therefore important that children under the age of seven should not be expected to read small print or indeed to do any close work for long periods. (Chapter 3, Section 56). Accuracy of control of movement 34. By the age of six a child has acquired fairly accurate control of the larger muscles, but control of the finer muscles does not exhibit very noticeable improvement till about the age of eight. It is accordingly important that during the earlier stages of childhood attempts to develop muscular control should be directed mainly to that of the larger muscles and that fine work with hands and fingers should not be expected. (Chapter 3, Section 57). Observation and perception 35. At this stage, the child's intellectual activities and most of his direct learning depend on the exercise of the sense organs, particularly those of sight, though touch and muscle sense still play an important part. He takes in general impressions and grasps things as a whole, but requires definite help if he is to compare and discriminate. The power to relate objects one to another and to underlying hidden or abstract causes is only beginning to emerge. His ideas, thoughts and imagination grow mainly out of what he sees, handles and does, and in this process language will become more and more important. Words mean nothing to the young child unless they are definitely associated with active experience. The right choice of words, therefore, forms an essential part of his instruction at this stage. (Chapter 3, Section 58). Reproductive imagination 36. Children by the age of seven do most of their thinking in concrete visual terms, and from the age of eight at least usually possess excellent visual memories. On the other hand, there are children whose visual memory is poor. In such cases recourse might be had to auditory memory and to the sense of touch. (Chapter 3, Section 59). Constructive imagination 37. The age of phantasy in most children extends at least up to the age of six or seven. Scope should still be afforded for 'make-believe' in the children's play but their fancy should not be over-stimulated, and should be brought increasingly into contact with the universe of fact, by encouraging them to follow their developing interests among real things. (Chapter 3, Section 59). Memory, attention, and reasoning power 38. The young child learns more slowly and forgets more rapidly than the older child, but owing to undeveloped reasoning power he relies more on mere mechanical retention. The child's difficulty in committing certain things to memory is partly due to the fact that his power of attention is very limited; the ideas presented to him should therefore be very simple and few at a time; oral lessons should be short and closely related to the child's practical interests. He finds difficulty in dealing with abstract ideas and is only beginning to understand the relation of objects in space, while problems of time, except the simplest, are beyond his grasp. Moreover, the ordinary child of seven has only the vaguest notion of the relation of cause and effect. (Chapter 3, Sections 60-62). Emotional development 39. At this stage of emotional development the child begins to turn from his parents and even from adults generally and to find his chief source of interest either in other children or in the objects of the outside world. A feeling of comradeship with his playfellows begins to develop, which gives him a greater sense of confidence and independence. Those moral values which depend on the recognition of the rights of others develop gradually with the child's increasing independence of his parents from about the age of six, but for some time these values will necessarily remain concrete, immediate and personal. It is clearly undesirable to talk to children too much in abstract ethical language. (Chapter 3, Section 63). V: The training and teaching of children under the age of seven (a) The nursery stage for children below the age of five 40. The fundamental purpose of the nursery school or class is to reproduce the healthy conditions of a good nursery in a well-managed home, and thus to provide an environment in which the health of the young child - physical, mental and moral - can be safeguarded. (Chapter 6, Section 84). 41. The training of the nursery stage must be a natural training, not an artificial one. Its aim is not so much to implant the knowledge and the habits which civilised adults consider useful, as to aid and supplement the natural growth of the normal child. (Chapter 6, Section 86). 42. The training of the nursery school or class must be carried into the home by active cooperation with the parents of the children. If it is to be fully effective, it must be practised in the home life of the children. (Chapter 6, Section 83). (b) The training and teaching in infant schools for children between the ages of five and seven 43. It is the special function of the infant school to provide for the educational needs of the years of transition that separate babyhood from childhood, and in particular to supply children between the ages of five and seven plus with what is essential for their healthy growth, physical, intellectual, spiritual and moral, during this stage of development. (Chapter 6, Section 88). 44. The infant school is concerned with the lower stage of primary education up to the age of seven, and the guiding principle determining the training and teaching given therein is the same principle that we laid down for the primary school as a whole in Chapter 7 of our report on The Primary School (1931), i.e. 'the curriculum is to be thought of in terms of activity and experience rather than of knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored.' (3) (Chapter 6, Section 88). 45. In the provision of opportunities for further experience and experiment, the infant school must make a delicate compromise between the immediate powers and needs of the child and his future requirements as a potential adult. (Chapter 6, Section 88). 46. Since physical welfare is the foundation upon which mental training should largely be based, and which includes much of the habit and character training and the development of mental intelligence and alertness that is preparatory to the more direct education and training of the mind, the first place in the training and teaching of the infant school will still, as in schools and classes for children under the age of five, be given to the physical well-being and efficiency of the child. (Chapter 6, Section 89). 47. The training and teaching of the infant school should be based on the open-air activities and interests of the children. (See also recommendation 27 above). (Chapter 6, Section 90). 48. The infant school buildings provide an opportunity for realising a standard of life, for the acquisition of social habits, and for the exercise of unselfishness and consideration for others. (Chapter 6, Section 91). 49. Speech training, begun during the nursery stage, should be continued throughout the infant school stage. It serves a double purpose; it helps the child to extend his vocabulary and to express his ideas more freely; and it acts as a corrective to slovenly and inaccurate utterance. (Chapter 6, Section 92). 50. Since it is natural to children to express their sense of rhythm in movement, they should he encouraged to do so in various ways. In particular, grace of movement should find opportunities in the infant school for expression in the joyful dance, not only linked with, but expressive of, simple and beautiful music. (Chapter 6, Section 93). 51. For singing, which has rightly long held a prominent place in the activities of the infant school, the traditional hymns, nursery rhymes and game songs should form the natural repertory for the younger children. (Chapter 6, Section 93). 52. The infant school should provide an opening for the love of acting, which is a basic interest with most children. Dramatisation helps to develop the power of expression in movement, which on the one hand is closely associated with the development of perception and feeling, and on the other hand affords valuable opportunity for the practice of speech. (Chapter 6, Section 93). 53. Constructive work of various kinds should occupy an important place in the activities of the infant school. In general, manual and aesthetic development are better secured when the child is left to make what he likes, how he likes and, within reason, when he likes, than by any set lessons. (Chapter 6, Section 94). 54. Up to the age of five children need a sleep during school hours, and other opportunities for repose. The need for midday sleep diminishes between the ages of five and six, but throughout the infant stage the child still requires occasions for rest when his limbs and brain can recuperate. During these quiet periods the teacher can tell stories and read aloud to the children, as a mother in a cultured home reads to her children in order to satisfy their love for a story and make them for a time forget in the interest of the narrative the urge to activity. (Chapter 4, Section 96). (See also recommendation 20 above). 55. Mental development includes the acquisition of certain forms of knowledge and skill, and in particular the use of the instrumental subjects known as the 3Rs. (Chapter 6, Section 97). 56. The child should begin to learn the 3Rs when he wants to do so, whether he be three or six years old. Only in this way will the acquisition of the 3Rs come about incidentally as a part of widening interests and experiences. (Chapter 6, Section 97). 57. Reading is incomparably the most important of the 3Rs, though there are many children who find arithmetic more fascinating. (Chapter 6, Section 97). Procedure 58. For the practical purpose of school organisation, it is convenient to classify the aspects of training and teaching roughly under four heads: (a) Religious instruction; (4)The time available for secular occupations might with advantage be divided more or less equally between (b) and (c) in the case of the younger children, and between (b), (c) and (d) in the case of the older children who have begun the 3Rs, and in their case the largest share of the time allocated to (d) should be devoted to reading. (Chapter 6, Section 98). 59. A more minute division of the timetable is not advisable. (Chapter 6, Section 98). 60. It is not advisable to adopt any hard and fast rule for the length of lessons in infant schools. (Chapter 6, Section 98). 61. The principle underlying the procedure of the infant school should be that, as far as possible, the child should be put in the position to teach himself, and the knowledge that he is to acquire should come, not so much from an instructor, as from an instructive environment. (Chapter 6, Section 100). 62. Educational apparatus has its place in the creation of an instructive environment. Elaborate apparatus is unnecessary in infant schools. The best apparatus is that which the teacher has designed and made for herself in full conviction of its necessity and with confidence in her own idea. (Chapter 6, Section 101). 63. Through 'individual work' the children teach themselves. 'Individual work' imposes fresh responsibilities on the teacher, and cannot be carried on effectively unless records of each child's progress are regularly kept. (Chapter 6, Section 102). (See also recommendation 13 above). 64. Freedom is essential for the child, and only becomes dangerous when there is nothing to absorb the child's restless activity and provide an outlet for his experimental spirits. (Chapter 6, Section 103). 65. The child's progress depends on his acquiring new ideas and new interests at the right moment. The oral lesson holds a definite place in the school procedure, since in this way new ideas and new interests can be effectively introduced with economy of time and effort. (Chapter 6, Section 104). 66. Children who are sufficiently level in attainment should be treated as a group for oral lessons and other purposes in which the group forms a more useful unit than the class. Group work is also necessary in order to help children to work harmoniously with others and to subordinate their free impulses to the necessity of common action and a division of functions. (Chapter 6, Section 104). 67. Freedom in planning and arranging her work is essential for the teacher if the ever present danger of a lapse into mechanical routine is to be avoided. (Chapter 6, Section 105). VI: The medical supervision, education and training of children below the age of five Medical supervision for children below the age of five 68. The problem of the physical and mental welfare of children below the age of compulsory school attendance is essentially sociological. Any fundamental attempt to solve it must eventually take account of the provision of better housing conditions for large sections of the population and the consequent improvement in the child's early environment. The systematic efforts which are now being made in the schools to give the older girls some instruction in housecraft and infant care are helping towards a solution of this problem, and in course of time will do much more to help. Among other remedial agencies are the maternity and child welfare centres, the day nurseries, and similar organisations. The available statistics show that only about 13 per cent of the children between the ages of three and five in England and Wales are attending infant departments of public elementary schools or separate nursery schools. It is certain that the majority of the children included in the remaining 87 per cent do not attend infant welfare centres after babyhood, even when this service has been extended to children above that age. It is thus evident that neither the maternity and infant welfare centres, the day nurseries, nor the nursery schools and the classes for children under five in public elementary schools are at present dealing with more than a small percentage of the total number of children below that age. (Chapter 5, Sections 72 and 81). 69. We deliberately refrain from offering any suggestions for closing the gap in medical inspection and treatment during the years which intervene between attendance at the infant welfare centre and admission to school, since this problem is outside the scope of our Reference. Nevertheless, we desire to take this opportunity of recording our opinion that sufficient supervision of the health of children below the age of five is a pressing need, and we think that the possibility of extending existing services should be explored with a view to providing more adequate facilities for the medical inspection and treatment of such children. (Chapter 5, Sections 72 and 81). Provision in schools for children below the age of five 70. In general, we think that, where the home conditions are good, the best place for a child below the age of five is at home, particularly if the mother takes advantage of the facilities for regular medical supervision of such children which are available or may be made available in the future. We fully recognise, however, that the home surroundings of large numbers of children are not satisfactory, and we think that children below the age of five from such homes might with great benefit to themselves, their parents, and to the state, attend either separate nursery schools, or nursery classes within public elementary schools. Any provision made by the state should be designed to supplement the home and to strengthen the ties between parents and their children. (Chapter 5, Sections 80 and 81). 71. We think that children under the age of five in rural areas can only profit from attendance at school if there is a sufficient number of them to form a group, i.e. to justify the setting apart of a room and a teacher for their special training. (Chapter 5, Section 79). Nursery schools 72. We are of opinion that the nursery school is a desirable adjunct to the national system of education; and that in districts where the housing and general economic conditions are seriously below the average, a nursery school should if possible be provided. The nursery school should be designed primarily for those children who by reason of unsuitable environment require careful attention to their physical welfare and need to spend longer hours at school and to be provided with meals. (Chapter 5, Section 81). 73. At the present stage of development of infant education, the nursery school has a value of its own as an educational instrument. It seems highly desirable that it should be developed separately, and be left free to perfect its methods, and to fulfil its special purpose. (Chapter 5, Section 77). 74. We consider that even in districts where the social and economic conditions are more favourable, the establishment of a nursery school may be expected to have a beneficial influence upon other schools and to provide also a centre in which problems connected with the general development and nurture of children may be investigated. We think, therefore, that apart from purely social and economic considerations model nursery schools for children from the age of two onwards are educationally desirable, and that they should be made accessible to teachers from other schools. (Chapter 5, Section 81). Size of nursery schools 75. While on purely educational grounds we are disposed to regard a nursery school for 60 to 80 children as of ideal size, we would recommend on economic grounds that, wherever necessary, nursery schools should be planned to accommodate 160 to 180, provided that the children are grouped in units not exceeding 35 to 40. (Chapter 5, Section 76). Nursery classes within infant schools 76. There are areas in which nursery classes within infant schools or departments will satisfy the existing need. Where children below the age of five are admitted to infant schools or departments, nursery classes should eventually be the normal type of provision. (Chapter 5, Sections 78 and 81). General recommendation 77. We accordingly recommend that each local education authority should survey the needs of their area, with regard to home conditions and the wishes of the parents; and, after consultation with the Board of Education, should take such steps as may seem to them desirable to provide nurture and training in schools for children below the age of five. (Chapter 5, Section 81). VII: Staffing and training of teachers The relation of the size of classes to staffing 78. We recommend that the general lines of the staffing of infant schools should be determined by the consideration that none of the classes should contain more than 40 children. (Chapter 7, Section 107). The staffing of infant schools and of nursery classes 79. We recommend that the persons in charge of classes of young children below the age of seven should, where practicable, be certificated teachers. We realise that under existing conditions the practice of appointing certificated teachers to all assistant posts in infant 'divisions' and in separate infant schools or departments cannot be universally adopted. While we hesitate to lay down any particular ratio for the purpose of guiding authorities as to the minimum of certificated teachers which should be employed on each staff, lest such a minimum might come to be regarded as a maximum, we would impress upon authorities the desirability of ensuring that in all schools in which the assistant staff numbers two or more, the head teacher should not be, as is sometimes at present the case, the only certificated teacher. (Chapter 7, Section 107). 80. In small schools staffed by two teachers, in which the head mistress generally teaches the older children, we think that, when the teacher in charge of the infant class is not certificated, great care should be taken to select a woman who possesses definite educational qualifications; she should also be temperamentally suitable and have a real sympathy for young children. We specially commend the practice adopted by many local education authorities of supplementing the guidance which such a teacher will receive from the head of the school by arranging for: (a) visits of observation; (b) occasional exchanges with teachers in larger schools; (c) weekend classes and intensive courses; (d) advice from a visiting expert teacher. (Chapter 7, Section 107). 81. We consider that in areas containing a number of very small schools, in which the infant class may not always be in the charge of a certificated teacher, the services of an advisory visiting teacher are not less necessary than for some other branches of specialised teaching. We trust, however, that if this is done, special care will be exercised to prevent the stereotyping of educational method. (Chapter 7, Section 107). 82. In small schools in which the number of pupils on the roll approaches 100, and in which the head teacher may be a man, there will ordinarily be two assistants, one of whom in our opinion should be a certificated woman possessing special qualifications for the teaching and training of the younger children. (Chapter 7, Section 107). The staffing of nursery classes 83. We consider that, since the teacher in charge of a nursery class for children below the age of five has special responsibilities in attending to both the physical and mental development of her pupils, she will require one or more 'helpers' (see recommendation 85 below) if adequate use is to be made of the nursery amenities that we have recommended for such classes. (Chapter 7, Section 107). The staffing of the nursery school 84. The staffing of nursery schools will not differ in principle from the staffing recommended for nursery classes, but the following considerations should be borne in mind: (a) When children as young as two are admitted, it is desirable that the teacher in charge should have had special instruction in nursery care during her training course. (b) A higher ratio of 'helpers' should be allowed: (i) where the day is longer, including meal times; and (ii) where children are admitted at the age of two. (5)(Chapter 7, Section 108). 'Helpers' for nursery schools and nursery classes 85. 'Helpers' are necessary in nursery schools and nursery classes, and we recommend their employment under the following conditions. They should be girls who have attended school up to the age of at least fifteen years, and their employment as 'helpers' should cease at the age of eighteen or nineteen. In assessing qualifications for such work, the appointing body should have particular regard to the girl's aptitude for dealing with young children, to any evidence of vocational impulse, and also to the bearing which work in nursery schools and classes may have upon her future occupation. Though we think that a 'helper' who shows special aptitude for dealing with young children might be allowed the opportunity of continuing her general education with a view to qualifying as a teacher, we consider it important that employment as a 'helper' should not be regarded as offering a guarantee of ultimate employment as a teacher. In the course of her work she will have acquired the experience of infant care which may qualify her later for employment as a children's nurse, welfare worker, or as a hospital nurse probationer. The training should also be valuable for girls remaining at home, or who later may have the care of a home. (Chapter 7, Section 110). Courses of training for teachers of children under the age of seven 86. The general scheme for training intending infant teachers varies in different training colleges. In a few the infant teacher is trained to teach children between the ages of two or three and seven or eight; in others, she is trained to teach children between the ages of five and eleven, with some emphasis on the special requirements of those between the ages of five and seven or eight. It does not follow, however, that the more specialised training will necessarily tie the teacher to service in a particular type of school. It is important that teachers in infant schools should have had some knowledge of the various stages in a little child's development. The difficulties of the child of six or seven should be seen in relation to those of the child from the earliest age. Teachers will be better able to handle with understanding the problems that arise if they study them in their sequence. (Chapter 7, Section 109). Qualifications for the teacher of young children 87. A teacher of young children should not only have a real love and respect for children, but should be a person of imagination, understanding, sympathy and balance. The possession of a pleasant voice is of the first importance. Child study should form the basis of her training and her studies in psychology should be connected directly with descriptions and observations of the actual behaviour of children. She should study the stages of development in children up to the age of seven with due regard to every aspect of growth. She should learn to note progress, to observe any signs of defect, and to keep records. She should gain some insight into the emotional problems of little children and learn how to handle their crises. (Chapter 7, Section 109). Probationary period of service for certificated teachers 88. We think that in both urban and county areas great care should be exercised in allocating young teachers who have specialised in infant work to schools for a probationary year, so that their first years in the profession may be passed in circumstances calculated to ensure that the best use is made of their college training. (Chapter 7, Section 109). Intensive courses and weekend classes for infant teachers 89. We call attention to the excellent results that have been obtained from the intensive courses and weekend classes organised by the Board of Education and local education authorities. (Chapter 7, Section 109). The training and qualifications of superintendents of nursery schools 90. In view of the fact that she will have younger children in her care and will have them for a longer time, including the midday meal, we consider it advisable that the superintendent of a nursery school should have been trained at a three year college, or should have taken a 'third' year in order to specialise in the charge of very young children, or should have had considerable experience in their care and teaching. (Chapter 7, Section 109). VIII: Premises and equipment Existing school premises for children below the age of seven 91. Though great improvements have been effected in school planning, the design of the ordinary infant school is not yet in complete harmony with modern opinion regarding its function and activities. (Chapter 8, Section 112). The need for adequate space in infant schools 92. We consider that a more generous allowance of floor space is necessary for infants than for children in primary schools between the ages of seven and eleven. (Chapter 8, Section 113). The utilisation of the surplus internal space in infant schools 93. In many infant school buildings there is an increasing amount of surplus accommodation owing to the declining birth rate, to the reorganisation of schools, and in many parts of the country to the movement of population. Two lines of policy for using this surplus accommodation, which in some cases may be alternative, accordingly present themselves to local education authorities: (a) the provision of more adequate accommodation for children between the ages of five and seven; (b) the utilisation of vacant floor space for nursery classes. (Chapter 8, Section 113). Design and construction of infant schools 94. The essential conditions of fresh air, sunshine and light will best be secured by what may be described as semi-open-air buildings. (6) On the whole, it seems that despite the somewhat higher annual maintenance charges, the less solid types of structure, in addition to being more economical in initial cost, may be found more adaptable to future changes in the methods of training and teaching young children. (Chapter 8, Section 116). Nursery school premises 95. The nursery school building should not be 'institutional' in character, but as far as possible of a light and open 'garden pavilion' type. We regard the provision of open shelters with a liberal space for a garden playground, as an essential feature in the design of all newly provided nursery schools. (Chapter 8, Section 118 and Chapter 5, Section 75). Garden playgrounds for infants 96. In all new infant schools and departments a separate playing space or garden playground should be provided. Where, as in old buildings or on existing sites, this is impossible, the playground should be reserved at stated times for the younger children. If there is insufficient space for a garden, the margins of the playground may be laid out in beds for flowers, plants and shrubs. Where practicable, part of the playing space for infants should be a grass plot. (Chapter 8, Section 114). Offices and lavatories 97. In new buildings the sanitary arrangements as well as the lavatories should be placed within the school, for the sole use of the infants. The school lavatories should be provided with an adequate supply of hot water, and 'safety' taps should be fitted in the system. (Chapter 8, Sections 114 and 116). Special consideration in internal planning for the needs of young children 98. The planning of the offices, lavatories, cloakrooms, store cupboards, and shelves in infant schools, and the height of dados and door handles should be governed by the needs of the smaller children. Special regard should be paid to this consideration in remodelling old school buildings originally designed for older children. (Chapter 8, Section 114). Storage accommodation and cupboards 99. The amount of educational apparatus now required for the training of young children necessitates a more generous provision of storage space than was usual in the older type of infant school, and also a different kind of cupboard for the children's use. (Chapter 8, Section 114). Kitchens 100. It is desirable to provide a small kitchen in school buildings designed for young children. (Chapter 8, Sections 114 and 116). Arrangements for drying clothes and footwear 101. Suitable drying rails should be placed in the lavatory attached to the cloakroom, or preferably in a separate drying closet. Storage for overalls, brushes and other personal belongings may be provided in the cloakroom, the slippers being kept in racks below the cloak rails. A space of eighteen inches [46cm] between each cloak hook should be insisted upon, at least in new buildings. (Chapter 8, Section 114). Internal decoration 102. The practical knowledge and experience of the architects as to the wearing qualities of colours and their surface finish should be brought into account as well as the artistic and educational value of any proposed colour scheme for the rooms. We accordingly suggest that the local education authority might be well advised to form a reference committee consisting of teachers (including art teachers) and representatives of the architect's department. (Chapter 8, Section 114). School maintenance 103. In infant and nursery schools the thorough and frequent cleansing of the cloakrooms and offices and of the floors, walls and furniture in the classrooms has a particular importance. (Chapter 8, Section 120). Internal equipment for infant and nursery schools 104. We regard it as most desirable that the classrooms in infant schools should be furnished with light tables and chairs. In addition to small tables and chairs, folding stretcher beds of light metal or wood are indispensable in nursery schools and classes. An adequate supply of teaching equipment, a piano, and possibly a gramophone and some instruments of percussion should be provided in infant schools and in nursery schools and classes. (7) (Chapter 8, Sections 119 and 122). Books for infant schools 105. It is most important that infant schools should be adequately supplied with suitable books, including picture books, story books, and the 'work' type of reading book. The supply of class books for reading is generally adequate, but there is a greater need for books to meet the requirements of those infant schools where individual methods have been adopted. (Chapter 8, Section 121). (Signed) WH Hadow CBE (Chairman)
RF Young (Secretary)
*See the following note: NOTE BY MISS FREDA HAWTREY In conclusions 72, 73, 74, we recognise the value of nursery schools, and I am glad to associate myself with this recognition. The nursery school is recommended as a means for promoting the physical welfare of children whose environment is unsuitable: it is said to be 'educationally desirable'; it is expected to have 'a beneficial influence upon other schools'; it may provide a centre for the investigation of problems connected with the general development and nurture of children. It is assumed, however, that the nursery school will in every case continue to limit its admission to children aged two to five. I go a little beyond my colleagues in believing that a nursery school would have more value as an experiment or as a 'model' if it were able to keep its children till seven, the age when they pass into the upper department of a primary school. At present the work of the nursery school is unduly curtailed by the break at five. A little child needs food, sleep, exercise, fresh air and cleanliness, and this 'nurture', essential for his development, should not be even partially withdrawn at the early age of five. Nor should he be interrupted in his practice of good habits. Nothing is secure at five, though without a break much might be established by seven. A sudden change of environment will be equally damaging to his intellectual development and growing interests. There should be continuity till seven; when this continuity is preserved the extent to which children benefit from education in a nursery school will become apparent. In planning the training and education of children up to seven, the relation between school and home is a governing consideration. Home conditions differ greatly, and the various ways in which these may be supplemented through the schools can only be determined by free experiment. We have the infant school for children from five to seven, the infant school with nursery class for those from three to seven, the nursery school for those from two to five, and we need also the nursery school for children from two to seven. Such a nursery school could be developed separately. It would then in truth be free 'to perfect its methods and to fulfil its special purpose'. (Conclusion 73). The Education Act 1921 empowers local education authorities to supply or aid nursery schools for children over two and under five years of age or such later age as may be approved by the Board of Education. This has in practice been interpreted to mean that leave may be given to nursery schools to retain individual children who need very special consideration. I venture to suggest that the Board of Education should extend their use of this discretionary power, and that they should be prepared to approve nursery schools for children over two and up to seven years of age. I therefore accept recommendation 74 with the following alteration: 'We think, therefore, that apart from social and economic considerations, model nursery schools for children either from the age of two to five or from the age of two to seven are educationally desirable and that they should be made accessible to teachers from other schools.'F. HAWTREY. Footnotes (1) This is subject to the proviso that the Board of Education, in considering whether approval shall be given to any such by-law, 'shall have regard to the adequacy of the provision of nursery schools for the area to which the by-law relates'. (See Preliminary pages: Introduction). (2) In this respect 'nursery classes' differ from nursery schools, since the latter may admit children from the age of two. In a nursery school, however, more complete provision is possible for the training and nurture of very young children. (3) Report on The Primary School (1931), Chapter 7, Section 75. (4) See Chapter 6, footnote 20. (5) Part-time assistance will be required for the preparation of meals, etc. 'Caretaking' in nursery schools is of special importance. (See recommendation 103). (6) These conditions are even more desirable where schools contain a nursery class. (7) The teaching equipment in nursery schools and classes will usually consist of picture books, apparatus for sense training, plastic material for handwork, dolls and dolls' houses, railways, rocking horses (not too large) and other toys, bricks of various types, beads and abaci. In the playground and garden there should be balancing boards, swings, small wheelbarrows and small garden tools. 
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