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Hadow (1931) Notes on the text
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The Hadow Report (1931)
The Primary School London: HM Stationery Office
Chapter 11 Summary of principal conclusions and recommendations
113. Our conclusions and recommendations are as follows: 1. In the evolution of educational theory and practice in England and Wales since the beginning of the last century the conception of the primary school for children between the ages of five and eleven, with a separate organisation, where possible, for those between the ages of seven and eleven, marks a new departure and brings with it new problems. Today primary education is recognised as ending at about the age of eleven; secondary education of various types is that which follows; and the importance of considering the education of children in primary schools as something which must have a character of its own, arises from these facts. (Chapter 1, Section 24). 2. We adhere to the view stated in our Report on the Education of the Adolescent (1926) that primary education should be regarded as ending at the age of eleven, and that normally all children should go forward at that age to some form of secondary education. We accordingly consider that, in the interests of primary and secondary education alike, the transfer from the primary school to the secondary school should take place some time between the ages of eleven and twelve. (Chapter 4, Section 49). 3. Primary education may be said to fall into two well-marked stages - one extending up to the age of seven plus, and the other comprising the period between the ages of seven plus and eleven plus. (Chapter 5, Section 62). In areas where it is possible, there should be separate schools for children under the age of seven. In rural areas, the majority of the schools for young children must often be organised as primary schools for pupils between the ages of five and eleven. We think, however, that in all primary schools containing children up to the age of eleven, including even small rural schools, there should be a well-defined line of demarcation between the younger and older children. To this end, wherever possible, the infants should be placed under the care of a mistress with special responsibility and special knowledge of modern methods appropriate to this stage. (See also recommendation No. 8). (Chapter 4, Section 57). 4. In all cases where there are separate schools for children below the age of seven and for children above that age, a close connection should be maintained between both schools, and frequent staff meetings should be held, attended by both sets of teachers. (Chapter 4, Section 60). 5. It is most important that teachers in all types of secondary school should keep in close touch with the teachers of the contributory primary schools, e.g. by means of periodical conferences. (Chapter 4, Section 61). 6. It is important that the translation from the general treatment and methods of teaching in use in infant schools to those in use in the next stage of primary education should be easy and gradual, and that the teachers of the lower classes in the latter should have some knowledge of infant school methods. Under these conditions there is, in our opinion, no good reason why promotion from the infant school should not be made between the ages of seven and eight. (Chapter 4, Sections 53, 55 and 58, and Chapter 5, Section 63). 7. The break at the age of eleven has rendered possible a more thorough classification of children. It is important that this opportunity should be turned to the fullest account. In particular the needs of the specially bright and of retarded children should be met by appropriate arrangements. The range of curriculum for specially gifted children need not differ greatly from that hitherto in vogue in some 'all-age' elementary schools. (See also recommendation No. 19). (Chapter 5, Section 66). 8. We consider that the differences between rural and urban schools are often exaggerated, though the primary school in rural areas presents some problems of its own. It is clear that the curriculum which is possible for children between the ages of seven and eleven, depends to a large extent on the general character and scope of the instruction given in the infant classes in such primary schools. In small country schools it is doubtless difficult for one teacher to devote adequate attention to the infants and at the same time to give appropriate instruction to the different groups or sets of children between the ages of seven and eleven. We would accordingly urge that, wherever the numbers justify, there should also be a responsible assistant to take charge of the infants. (See also recommendation No. 3). (Chapter 5, Section 67). 9. There is no valid objection on general sociological and educational grounds to 'mixed' primary schools, provided that due regard be paid to the differing needs of the boys and girls in the matter of games and physical exercises. (Chapter 5, Section 65). (Cf. recommendations Nos. 16, 17 and 18). 10. The period between the ages of seven and eleven constitutes a stage of vital importance in the growth of the human organism. It is the business of the primary school to provide appropriate educational treatment. (Chapter 2, passim). 11. The stage between seven and eleven may justly be regarded as affording the best opportunity under existing conditions for making good past defects in the development of young children, and preparing them for the heavy demands entailed by rapid growth during puberty. (Chapter 2, Section 28). 12. The study of the growth of the child's organism provides definite indications in regard to the physical strain and burdens which may safely and properly be imposed on it at successive stages. These indications have an important bearing on the suitability of various games, exercises and physical tasks for boys and girls. (Chapter 2, Section 29). 13. It is important both for the physical well-being of individual boys and girls and for their educational progress, that any salient features of their physical development should be noted not only on their medical cards, but also on their school records. It is, however, essential that any information of this character entered on the school records should be treated as strictly confidential. (Chapter 2, Sections 28, 30 and 31). 14. Teachers in primary schools should be on the alert to detect even slight defects in vision or hearing, or any nervous peculiarities that may have escaped the notice of the school medical officers or of the teachers in the infant school, as such defects are responsible for much so-called backwardness in young children. (Chapter 3, Section 36). 15. Acute infectious diseases are on the whole less common in children between the ages of seven and eleven than in younger children, but chronic sequelae from preceding acute infections may be observed in many pupils at this period. It is accordingly most important that children during the successive stages of convalescence should not be unduly pressed with school work. (Chapter 2, Sections 28 and 30). 16. The conventional view of the period between the ages of seven and eleven as a 'neutral age' is incorrect, as recent physiological researches indicate that sex differences should not be ignored at this stage of so-called 'neutral' childhood. (Chapter 2, Section 33). 17. One of the most important of these differences is the relatively greater liability of girls to fatigue. It seems desirable that even at this early stage appropriate games and appropriate physical exercises should be provided for the girls. The provision of adequate facilities for rest is also important, especially for girls. (Chapter 2, Sections 29 and 33, and Chapter 3, Section 36). 18. The evidence from psychologists and teachers indicates that although on the intellectual side sex differences at this period are so small as to be almost negligible, yet on the emotional side, the interests of the boy and of the girl are moving further and further apart. (Chapter 3, Section 47). 19. Older children differ far more widely in intellectual capacity than younger children. It would, therefore, seem that while at the infant stage children may be grouped together without much regard to varying degrees of mental endowment, by the age of ten pupils in a single age group should be classified in several sections, though there is not the same need for elaborate gradations before the age of eleven as after that age. (See also recommendation No. 7). (Chapter 3, Section 35). 20. While the evidence indicates that, in general, there are no sudden breaks in the intellectual and emotional development of young children, nevertheless the period between the ages of seven and eleven displays features which render it desirable that it should be treated as a distinct stage in education. (See also recommendation No. 10). (Chapter 3, passim). 21. The scope of attention in young children appears to be very limited, as they are lacking in the power of mental organisation. The child's power of sustaining voluntary attention increases rapidly between the ages of seven and eleven. A child's interest, but not necessarily his capacity, is rapidly exhausted at this period, but his attention will be sustained if the matter presented be limited to a few simple ideas, and if freedom of movement and plenty of change be allowed during the lesson. (Chapter 3, Section 37). 22. The traditional view, still widely held, that memory is specially strong in young children and that the primary stage is pre-eminently the time for a great deal of routine work, requires large qualification. Reliance should be placed at this stage not only on mechanical memory, but also on that aspect of memory which is assisted by reasoning and understanding. (Chapter 3, Section 37). 23. Up to the age of eleven the school subjects and their presentation should be kept closely related to the children's concrete knowledge and their own immediate experience. At this stage the teaching should still be based directly upon what the pupil can perceive or recollect at first hand, usually in visual form, and not upon abstract generalisations or theoretical principles. It is accordingly important, as children pass from the infant school into the upper part of the primary school, that they should gradually be taught to bring to bear on the world of experience the constructive imagination which has been and is being cultivated in the world of 'make-believe'. (Chapter 3, Section 38). 24. The power of reasoning in children between the ages of seven and eleven appears to be more highly developed than is generally supposed. (See also recommendation No. 22). (Chapter 3, Section 41). 25. The susceptibility of the young child to suggestion is due not so much to lack of reasoning power as to lack of organised knowledge. (Chapter 3, Section 41). 26. Among other noticeable characteristics in children at this stage are curiosity, 'matter-of-factness', and, particularly from about the age of nine onwards, the love of constructive work and the desire to handle or to shape something which is new. (Chapter 3, Sections 43 to 46). 27. The capacity for genuine aesthetic appreciation is but little developed in the majority of children at this stage, but it is steadily growing, as they approach the age of eleven. The children's own efforts through their productions in the various media should be the most potent influence in the development of a sense of beauty; they are more potent than formal talks on beauty, or attempts to arouse prematurely the kind of appreciation which is appropriate only at later stages. The effect of seeing and hearing beautiful things must not be depreciated. (Chapter 3, Section 42). 28. We suggest that steps should be taken to investigate in greater detail the physical and mental development of children at this age period. (Chapters 2 and 3, passim). 29. Though in framing the curriculum for children between the ages of seven and eleven, it is necessary to build upon the foundations laid in the infant school and to keep in view the importance of continuity with the work of the secondary school, the main care must be to supply the pupils with what is essential to their healthy growth, physical, intellectual and moral, during this stage of their development. (Chapter 7, Section 74). 30. We are of opinion that the curriculum of the primary school is to be thought of in terms of activity and experience, rather than of knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored. (Chapter 7, Section 75). 31. An important feature of it should be physical training, the term being used to include not only exercises subserving physical health and efficiency, but also those which tend to produce good carriage and graceful movement. (Chapter 7, Section 76). 32. Language training should be regarded as fundamentally important. It should be based upon well-planned and systematic training in oral expression. Dialectal peculiarities are not at all to be suppressed, but children should be taught to speak standard English, and in Welsh-speaking districts Welsh, with grammatical correctness and careful enunciation. (Chapter 7, Section 77). (Cf. Chapter 12, The problem of the two languages in primary schools in Wales). 33. The cultivation of the children's aesthetic sensibility through drawing, craftwork, and music, and the development of their manual skill should receive careful attention. The cultivation of handwriting which is beautiful as well as legible, is important. (See also recommendation No. 27). (Chapter 7, Sections 78 and 79). 34. The traditional practice of dividing the matter of primary instruction into separate 'subjects', taught in distinct lessons, should be reconsidered. The treatment of a series of central topics which have relations with many subjects, may be a useful alternative. It is, however, essential that provision should be made for an adequate amount of 'drill' in reading, writing and arithmetic. (Chapter 7, Sections 83 to 86). (Cf. Chapter 3, Sections 37, 41 and 43). 35. Children may be broadly classified in respect of their natural capacity into (a) those that are highly gifted, i.e. super-normal, (b) those of average ability, i.e. normal, and (c) those whose ability is below the average, i.e. sub-normal. In the light of recent research the class of sub-normal children must be further divided into those who are (i) mentally defective, or (ii) retarded in mental development. Of those who are thus retarded some are more retarded, and some less. (Chapter 6, Section 68). 36. We accept the recommendations of the Report on Mental Deficiency made by the Joint Committee of the Board of Education and the Board of Control (1929) that it is most important to differentiate between mentally defective children and those whose mental development is merely retarded in a greater or less degree. We agree with the Joint Committee in recognising three classes of sub-normal children: (i) Those children whose mental age is below half their chronological age, e.g. in the case of children of the chronological age of ten, those whose mental age is below five. These we propose to call 'mentally defective' children. (1) (ii) (a) Those children whose mental age is above half and below seven tenths of their chronological age, e.g. in the case of children of the chronological age of ten, those whose mental age lies between five and seven. These we propose to call 'more retarded' children. (2) (b) Those children whose mental age lies between seven and eight tenths of their chronological age, i.e. in the case of children of the chronological age of ten, those whose mental age lies between seven and eight. These we propose to call 'less retarded' children. (Chapter 6, Section 68). 37. Recent researches, based on the application of 'intelligence' and other tests, indicate that innate differences between individual children increase in direct proportion to their age. For instance, a child who is backward by one year at the age of five, will probably be backward by two years at the age of ten, and by three years at the age of fifteen. By the age of eleven, the innate differences between individual children becomes so wide that various types of secondary education are needed. (Chapter 6, Section 68). 38. We strongly endorse the recommendation of the Joint Committee that retarded children should be recognised as requiring special attention between the ages of seven and eleven. (Chapter 6, Section 72). 39. It is most important, in the interests of retarded children, that the main causes of their retardation should be discovered at as early a stage as possible in their school career. We suggest that the teachers in schools for pupils between the ages of seven and eleven should discuss with the teachers of infant schools the previous school history of retarded children, and to this end we think that the practice of passing on a brief report on each pupil is greatly to be commended. In cases of obvious retardation, the head teacher of the primary school, in association with the class teacher, would be well advised to search for the principal cause or causes of retardation in each instance. It is probable that in some cases the teacher will require the assistance of the school medical officer, the school nurse, parents or guardians, and where available, the psychologist. We regard it as particularly desirable in cases of retardation that the head teacher should get into touch with the parents in an attempt to counteract any cause of retardation connected with the child's home conditions and environment. The child guidance clinics which are now being organised in some urban areas, could render valuable assistance in cases of this kind. (Chapter 6, Section 70). 40. The category of pupils known as 'more retarded' (sometimes described as 'educable defective') is comparatively small. 'Special schools' for such pupils should be closely related to the general educational system, while preserving freedom to provide for the educational requirements of particular types of children. Such 'special schools' should be large enough to allow of the proper grading of pupils, in order that the children may have full opportunities to develop such potentialities as they possess. In large portions of England and Wales the numbers of 'more retarded' children to be found in a given district will be too small to justify the establishment of 'special schools'. The children will have to be cared for in the local schools; or, where special classes for the the 'less retarded' children are formed, they may be included in these classes. In any case it should be possible to engage a teacher with a knowledge of 'special school' methods who will visit the local schools and, in conjunction with the class teacher, will plan courses of education suitable for the children who have to be classed as 'more retarded'. (Chapter 6, Section 71). 41. We have included in our Report certain sections dealing with the classification of, and appropriate curricula and methods of teaching, for the 'less retarded' (commonly known as 'dull or backward') children, who in all areas will be retained within the primary school itself. (Chapter 5, Sections 66-7, Chapter 6, Section 72, and Chapter 12, Curriculum and methods for teaching retarded children in the primary school). 42. Classes which are specially organised for retarded pupils, or those which contain any considerable proportion of such children, should be small. (Chapter 6, Section 72). 43. The general lines of the staffing of primary schools should be determined by the consideration that none of the classes should contain more than 40 children. (Chapter 5, Section 64 and Chapter 8, Section 87). 44. In schools and departments for children between the ages of seven and eleven the earlier work should be conducted by teachers who have had some experience in schools for infants and possess some knowledge of modern infant school methods. Children at this stage are usually taught by women; for the later stages the teachers in boys' schools and in 'mixed' schools should include an adequate number of men. Headships of 'mixed' schools should be open to both men and women and there should, where possible, be a senior assistant of the opposite sex to the head teacher; in large schools of this type the post of senior assistant should be treated as one of special responsibility. (See also recommendation No. 8). (Chapter 8, Section 87). 45. We think that in both urban and county areas great care should be exercised in allocating young teachers to schools for their probationary year in order to supplement their college training. An effort should be made to utilise small rural schools for probationary experience, provided that such work is done under adequate supervision. (Chapter 8, Section 89). 46. We think that it is essential that the head teachers in all primary schools, however small, should be certificated. (Chapter 8, Sections 87 and 93). 47. Recent changes in school organisation, which have emphasised the distinction between primary schools and modern schools, have brought into prominence the desirability for reconsidering the problem of the training of teachers. We suggest that appropriate steps should be taken to adjust the courses of training to suit the new organisation of schools. (Chapter 8, Section 88). 48. It is desirable that primary school teachers should not be immobilised, and that service in primary schools should be regarded as a useful preparation for the teaching of older pupils, especially for those teachers who desire later to specialise in the subjects and methods required for modern schools. (Chapter 8, Section 87). 49. We are of opinion that all training courses should afford adequate practice in methods of individual and group work, which are indispensable in rural schools and are of great importance everywhere. We suggest that the authorities of training colleges should take full advantage of modern transport facilities, and include some small rural primary schools among their centres for teaching practice. (Chapter 8, Section 90). 50. It should be recognised that in dealing with children between the ages of seven and eleven, due care for retarded children is in every way as important as for those that are normal. Since much of the knowledge of child psychology has been derived from the study of retarded children, it is probable that reference to the special problems they create will be made in most courses of training. An intensive knowledge of their needs, however, can be acquired only by supplementary courses imposed upon the foundation course of training. Teachers who deal with a considerable proportion of retarded children, therefore, should have special preparation, and any further training which they undertake to fit themselves for this work, should be regarded as an addition to their professional qualifications. (Chapter 8, Section 92). 51. In general we think that where a third year in a training college is not possible, short courses of the type of existing vacation courses and weekend courses should meet the needs of trained teachers in primary schools who desire to improve their proficiency in teaching. (Chapter 8, Section 91). 52. So long as uncertificated teachers continue to be recognised, local education authorities which employ them should take appropriate steps to ensure that they are proficient. (Chapter 8, Section 94). 53. We hold that in order to facilitate the entry of uncertificated teachers after not too long an interval into training colleges, and especially into colleges developing a rural side, the authorities of such colleges should accept candidates who are suitably qualified. (Chapter 8, Section 94). 54. We think that authorities which do not already grant loans to assist uncertificated teachers to undertake a course in a training college should consider the possibility of establishing a fund for this purpose. The amount of the loan, together with any grants payable under the Regulations for the Training of Teachers, should be such as would cover the expenses without undue strain on the teacher. (Chapter 8, Section 94). 55. We think it most important that the premises and equipment of primary schools should receive, in proportion to their needs, as much consideration from authorities as schools of the secondary type; though we recognise that the efforts of authorities will under present conditions be largely directed to the improvement of existing buildings. (Chapter 9, Section 96). 56. School buildings should be placed so as to obtain as much quiet and sunlight as possible. They should contain one or two spacious rooms for practical activities with water and gas laid on, a separate room for medical inspection, facilities for school meals, and where possible, an assembly hall. The plans adopted for new primary schools might well be designed on open air lines. (Chapter 9, Section 96). 57. Steps should be taken, wherever possible, to provide a supply of hot water in the lavatories, an adequate supply of drinking water, and facilities for drying wet clothes and boots. (Chapter 9, Section 96). 58. Classrooms should be so furnished that they may be readily adapted for various forms of activity. (Chapter 9, Section 97). 59. The libraries of primary schools should be equipped on as adequate a scale as possible, and the range of subjects should be as comprehensive in small schools as in large. They should contain a number of story books on topics that specially appeal to young children. We repeat the suggestion which we made in our Report on Books in Public Elementary Schools (1928), that the head teacher should decide whether it is more satisfactory to keep the whole collection of books together, or to apportion some of them to different classes or groups. We assume that adequate accommodation will be provided for school and class libraries, and that the suggestions regarding their upkeep which we made in section 54 of the Report in question, will be borne in mind by the responsible authorities. The fact that the library for the older children of the primary school will consist of simple books intended for reading rather than for reference, will affect both the question of binding such publications, and of equipment for their accommodation and preservation. (Chapter 9, Section 98). 60. Some (3) organised games as well as free play are appropriate for children under the age of eleven. Grass playing fields should be provided where possible, and these should be situated near the school whenever local conditions permit. (Chapter 9, Section 101). 61. In classifying pupils leaving the infant school, teachers may usefully apply intelligence tests. Full use should also be made of the school record, and of consultation between the teachers concerned. It is highly desirable that the classification of these young children should be regarded as merely provisional, and should be subject to frequent revision. (Chapter 10, Section 102). 62. As the provision of various types of secondary education is extended in the manner proposed in our Report on the Education of the Adolescent, the necessity for selecting by competition the children who will pass on to grammar schools and to selective modern schools will be diminished. It seems certain, however, that some qualifying examination or test will always be required for the purpose of classifying pupils. (Chapter 10, Section 103). 63. We agree with the view expressed in the Board's Memorandum on Free Place Examinations that there is generally less risk of overlooking suitable candidates if the examination is held in one stage only. In cases, however, where the examination is held in two stages, the first, or internal stage, should be general and compulsory. (Chapter 10, Section 105). 64. Carefully devised papers in English and arithmetic should be sufficient as a basic test of capacity and attainment for children at the age of eleven. We think, however, that the object of a final selective examination should be primarily to assess capacity, though the importance of a certain measure of attainment must not be ignored. (Chapter 10, Section 106). 65. Carefully devised group intelligence tests may be a useful factor in selection, but in our opinion it would be inadvisable to rely on such tests alone. (Chapter 10, Section 107). 66. We think that in examinations which set out primarily to discover ability, weight should be attached to the results of a properly conducted oral test. (Chapter 10, Section 108). 67. Some form of continuous record of each child's progress should be kept in primary schools. We consider that further inquiry is desirable, in order to determine the most convenient form in which the necessary information may be concisely presented. (Chapter 10, Section 109). (Cf. recommendations Nos. 13 and 39). 68. In order to enlist the interest of parents in the progress of their children a terminal or annual report on each individual pupil, based largely on the school record, should be sent to them. It is especially important that the parents' interest in the progress of their children should be secured at the stage when they are presented for the general examination at the age of eleven. To this end authorities might issue (as some do) for circulation to parents short statements setting out in clear and simple language the facilities for secondary education that are available in the area concerned. (Chapter 10, Section 111). 69. The conception of the primary school and its curriculum must not be falsified or distorted by any form of school test whether external or internal. The technique of examination must accordingly be so developed that it keeps abreast of the process of humanising and broadening the course of study in the primary school. One direction in which the right kind of examination will clearly develop is in the increasing importance that it will attach to the school record and the teacher's estimate, provided that this estimate is related to some general standard of ability and attainment. (Chapter 10, Section 112). 70. We cannot too strongly deprecate the tendency to base a comparative estimate of the efficiency of schools upon the class lists of a selective 'free place' examination. (Chapter 10, Section 112). (Signed) WH Hadow (Chairman)
28 November 1930 Footnotes (1) It is necessary to emphasise the fact that the restriction of the term 'Mentally Defective' to children in this group is recommended for administrative purposes only. (2) These correspond broadly with those hitherto classed as 'educable mentally defective' children. (3) See Chapter 9, footnote 11. 
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