Hadow (1928)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Membership, Analysis, Preface, Introduction
Chapter 1 Books in schools 1810 to 1928
Chapter 2 Place and function of books
Chapter 3 Provision of books by LEAs
Chapter 4 School and public libraries
Chapter 5 Guidance for teachers, production of books
Chapter 6 Cost and use of books
Chapter 7 Conclusions and recommendations
Appendix I List of witnesses
Appendix II Practice of sample LEAs
Appendix III Provision of books in London
Appendix IV Expenditure on books
Appendix V Provision of books in Scotland
Appendix VI Publication of new books
Index

Chapter 3 The practice and methods of local education authorities in respect of the provision of books for pupils and teachers in public elementary schools
[pages 57 - 67]

(i) THE PROBLEM OF THE PROVISION OF BOOKS FOR SCHOOLS FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF THE LOCAL EDUCATION AUTHORITY

41. Among the duties of local education authorities incidental to maintaining public elementary schools, few are more important than the provision of an adequate supply of suitable school books and works of reference for teachers and pupils. (1) The immediate problem which confronts each education authority is to supply the public elementary schools in its area at a reasonable cost with a sufficient number of such books adapted to the special needs of each individual school or department. In most areas it is recognised that the final choice of books must rest with the head teacher, subject to any financial limitations which the authority may find it necessary to impose. We discuss below in Chapter 5 the best method of securing to teachers the greatest possible freedom of choice, while at the same time affording them, without unnecessary interference, as much assistance as possible in making their choice. In the present chapter we consider the problem from the purely administrative point of view, especially in its financial bearings.

(ii) FINANCIAL ARRANGEMENTS FOR THE PROVISION OF BOOKS AND OTHER ITEMS OF SCHOOL SUPPLY

42. We have collected from a number of representative local education authorities data regarding the administrative arrangements for the provision of books in public elementary schools. Apparently the commonest method of controlling expenditure on school supplies, including books, is the adoption of a scale of capitation allowances. In many cases this scale is highly differentiated to meet the special needs of different types of school and department. (2) Frequently, however, it consists only of two fixed allowances, a lower one for infant departments and a higher one for departments of older children. (3) Although it is generally recognised that a larger capitation allowance may be required for small schools, their particular needs are not reflected in such a scale. Nor does the scale always make special provision for modern schools and advanced classes, probably because in many areas their requirements have not yet been clearly defined. In Appendix II we give details based on information furnished by a number of typical authorities regarding scales at present in use.

Authorities, however, do not always confine their expenditure strictly to scale allowances. Often, by some method or other, they provide supplementary grants to meet special circumstances. By this means the permanent needs of small schools, of schools in poor districts, and of modern schools and advanced classes are frequently met; as also are the temporary requirements of schools. (4) Thus, supplementary allowances may be made when a new school is stocked for the first time, or when a new method of teaching is adopted, or when a newly appointed head teacher wishes to make changes in organisation.

In some cases the capitation grant is assessed upon the number of children on the register, (5) but more often upon the average attendance. When the latter method is adopted, it becomes increasingly important to take into account the special circumstances of individual schools.

Another method chosen by a few authorities is to base their estimates on a fixed amount per head for all pupils on the registers of schools within their area, and to apportion this estimate according to the varying circumstances of the schools. In a few instances, separate scales and limits are fixed for books, stationery and apparatus respectively.

On the other hand, the available information indicates that a considerable number of authorities have no capitation allowances. In several of these areas, however, it would appear that scales of allowances which are not communicated to head teachers have, in fact, been drawn up for use in the office.

It was pointed out that the practice of fixing inclusive allowances for books, stationery and apparatus safeguarded an authority against any possible accusation of according preferential treatment to any one school. Under this system also the head teacher knew that his resources were relatively equal to those of his colleagues who were doing similar work, and that it must be his object to utilise those resources to the same advantage. Furthermore, the total sum of money expended in the area as a whole under this system varied only slightly from year to year, might be accurately estimated, and was not so liable to drastic reduction at a time of financial pressure.

We agree with the majority of our witnesses that in practice the most satisfactory method for regulating expenditure on books is for the authority to fix a scale of inclusive allowances for books, stationery and apparatus, with a special fund to meet particular circumstances. (6)

As regards the two types of school which we call 'small schools' and modern schools, we think that the satisfaction of their particular needs should not be entirely dependent upon supplementary contributions from a special fund. In using the term 'small school' as applying to all schools and departments which have an average attendance of less than 150 pupils, we are including under the term the great majority of schools and departments in England and Wales. Such schools are indeed eight times as numerous as those with an average attendance of over 350. (7) Our witnesses explained that, as a rule, the cost per head of equipping a small school or department adequately with the works of reference required for the school library was higher than for a large school. It was also pointed out that in small schools taking children of all ages, it was necessary to provide a wide range of class books for the various small groups of pupils of different ages. Since the available evidence thus points to the fact that the provision of books in small schools, and particularly those for children of all ages, costs more per head than in large schools, we are of opinion that they, in common with modern schools, should have their particular needs reflected in a special scale or scales.

(iii) THE BOOK ITEM IN EDUCATION ACCOUNTS; REQUISITIONING OF BOOKS; THE QUESTION OF A FIXED GRANT FOR BOOKS

43. Under the existing practice, expenditure on school books is included in the general expenditure on school supplies. We have been much impressed in the course of our inquiry with the difficulty which most authorities have in separating the expenditure on books (8) from that incurred on stationery and other articles of educational equipment. (9) We fully recognise that the expenditure per head on books must often vary considerably from area to area according to the schemes of work in use in various types of elementary school and according to local conditions, but we nevertheless consider it most important that each authority should know what it is spending per head on books in the various types of school. We are also of the opinion that the various items in the official form of Education Account which are at present included under the general headings of 'books and stationery' and 'furniture, apparatus and equipment' should be more finely discriminated.

We recognise that any change in the existing arrangements for keeping accounts might involve considerable trouble and possibly also some small additional expense. On the other hand it is evident that without knowledge of the amount spent per child on books in schools of different types, as distinct from the sums expended on other items of educational equipment, it is difficult for authorities effectively to control the book supply. It will be specially difficult to identify schools which for several years in succession may have asked for supplies of books totally inadequate to meet a minimum standard of efficiency according to modern requirements.

We accordingly recommend (a) that authorities should revise the methods of keeping their accounts so that expenditure on books for public elementary schools should be shown as a distinct item of expenditure (10) and (b) that the Board of Education and the Ministry of Health should be asked to confer with authorities as to the possibility of modifying the existing official form of Education Account in such a way as to obtain uniformity of practice, and to secure greater precision, by presenting separately and in greater detail some of the items now included under the two general headings 'Books and Stationery' and 'Furniture, Apparatus and Equipment'.

44. A large number of authorities issue a printed requisition form to their teachers on which they are asked to submit requests for supplies of books, stationery and educational apparatus of all kinds. Many of our witnesses have insisted that in requisition forms a distinction should be made (as is already done in those issued by several authorities) between (a) articles that schools occasionally require, such as laboratory apparatus, large wall maps, special material for needlework, blackboards etc, and (b) articles of a type that all schools require every year, such as books and stationery. If the requisition form were not clearly divided under these two heads, any statistics based on it would be useless, inasmuch as the purchase of a large blackboard, for example, might cost a small school from 1s to 3s [5p to 15p] per head and dislocate very notably the distribution of expenditure on books and other articles. We consider it desirable that the requisition forms should be framed in this way; such an arrangement will enable an authority to work out the average cost of different classes of articles for schools of the same size; and such figures might be used, if necessary, as a basis for checking proposed expenditure under different heads in individual schools of varying types, e.g. if a head teacher sent in a requisition form proposing 3d. per head for books, in an area where the average figure for similar schools was 2s 6d [12½p], there would clearly be a case for enquiry. Several witnesses gave instances in which schools had ordered no books for several years, and in which the authorities concerned had nevertheless made no inquiry as to the reason. (11)

We therefore recommend that local education authorities should provide a separate requisition form for school books.

45. While, however, we recognise the desirability of isolating in the accounts of an authority its expenditure on school books, and also of issuing a separate requisition form, we are not satisfied that it is equally desirable to establish a fixed grant for school books apart from the general grant for school supplies. Serious practical objections were urged by some witnesses against such a system of fixed grants for books only. An inelastic system, they said, would not afford opportunity for dealing with special cases, where, for instance, it was found desirable in a given year to spend more on educational apparatus and other items, and less on books. Moreover, methods of teaching affected the demand. Some teachers required more stationery; others, more books. Most of our witnesses, however, thought that teachers were seldom disposed to spend too much money on books. In fact, there was rather a risk, particularly in rural areas, that they might not spend enough. Some witnesses accordingly urged that in areas where for years past the expenditure on books had been low, it might be advisable that the authority, while not establishing a separate maximum for books, should specify a minimum sum per head to be spent on books only. With this proposal we agree.

(iv) OTHER ADMINISTRATIVE ARRANGEMENTS: SCRUTINY OF REQUISITIONS; STOCK BOOKS; TRANSFER OF SCHOOL BOOKS

(a) Scrutiny of requisitions

46. The arrangements adopted by various authorities for dealing with requisitions for books sent in by head teachers vary considerably. Requests for books from teachers in non-provided schools are frequently sent in the first instance to the managers, who may, if they think fit, modify the list before forwarding it to the local education authority. In some areas the requests for books and other educational material are dealt with by the Director or Secretary for Education. In other areas, especially those of authorities for elementary education only, the Education Committee consider in full committee all requisitions for books submitted by teachers. Requests for books and other educational material are often scrutinised by the local organising inspectors or inquiry officers, and whenever a request for books is submitted which appears to be open to criticism, these officers of the authority frequently suggest to the head teacher the names of books that would be more suitable for his purpose. Requisition forms sometimes have to be signed or countersigned by the local inspectors, who frequently confer with the head teachers regarding the choice of books and the completion of the forms. The consideration of the requisitions for school supplies, including books, is often delegated to minor officials. Our witnesses stated that some of these officials were apt to consider such requisitions from the financial aspect only, and were sometimes disposed to cut down requisitions for books that might well, on careful examination, prove to be the irreducible minimum required for efficient teaching. We were told, for instance, that in some areas it was the practice to return to head teachers all requisitions over the limit allowed by the authority, but not those that were below the limit. It was stated that the effect of the last mentioned practice was to discourage teachers from spending up to the limit. In this connection, several witnesses suggested that, if it were really necessary to cut down a requisition for books, it should always be returned to the head teacher to make an adjustment in the manner least harmful to the school. In the light of the available evidence, we recommend that, apart from considerations of cost (to which due regard must be paid), the scrutiny of requisition forms for books should be conducted solely from the educational point of view. The needs of each individual school, and any special local circumstances, should be taken into account. In cases where it seems necessary to cut down a requisition for books the list should be returned to the head teacher to make the adjustment needed in the manner least detrimental to the work of the school.

(b) Stock books

47. It is usual to keep stock books in which all the books received at the school are entered. Several witnesses, however, stated that where such stock books are kept, they are often little more than chronological lists of books, stationery and other educational material delivered at the school. Our witnesses held that for discovering the facts about the supply of books in any individual school the most satisfactory plan was to subdivide the stock book entries so as to enable articles of similar type to be entered consecutively, with the date of requisition or of supply. It was urged that a stock book kept on this system was particularly valuable in respect of school books, as it was thus possible to see at a glance a list of all the books in stock available at any date for each of the classes in the school, and to judge of their sufficiency, suitability and range. (12)

We agree with the views of our witnesses on this point, and we recommend that school stock books should be so arranged as to render it possible to enter consecutively under heads of subjects school books and works of reference as distinct from apparatus.

(c) Transfer of school books

48. Many of our witnesses, especially teachers in rural schools, were of opinion that much good might result from an organised system of transferring to other schools textbooks and general reading books which for various reasons were no longer in use in any particular school. We obtained information from a number of authorities regarding their practice in the matter. Many authorities have not made any general arrangements for the transfer of books, but such transfers are sometimes arranged between two departments of one school or between neighbouring schools. Other authorities told us that the transfer of books is now only occasionally attempted. In one county the books are returned to store at the head office and reissued. In other cases again arrangements are made through the Education Committee's district secretaries for the transfer or exchange of books in particular districts. In a large county borough, though a systematic transfer of books from one school to another has not been arranged, books in a serviceable condition are collected from time to time from school departments in which they are no longer required, brought to the central stores department, and reissued to schools as opportunity occurs.

While we recognise that the transfer of surplus school books must sometimes take place, if waste of money is to be avoided, we do not think it a desirable practice as an ordinary means for the supply of books. We do not, however, intend that this observation should be understood as applying to the various arrangements for circulating sets of general reading books to schools in urban and county areas, which are described in Chapter 4.

(v) EXPENDITURE ON BOOKS FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

49. We sent a questionnaire to fifty-seven representative local education authorities asking them, inter alia, to furnish particulars regarding the actual expenditure on school books for public elementary schools for the years ending 31 March 1925, 1926 and 1927 respectively. Most of these authorities, owing to the system of accounts at present in use, (13) were not in a position to differentiate between expenditure on books and that on stationery and other consumable material. Twenty-three authorities, however, were able to supply us with information about their expenditure on books in modern (central) schools (including schools giving courses of advanced instruction). Senior schools or divisions, junior schools or departments, infants' schools or departments, and small schools taking in one department children of all ages up to that of 14. (14) Several of these authorities have furnished information under the five heads on the basis of expenditure in a few typical schools or departments. Although the averages, which we give below, are not the result of a complete survey, they nevertheless throw some light on the approximate expenditure incurred on the provision of books for the main types of elementary school and department.

For the areas concerned we find that the average annual sum per pupil spent on books over the financial years 1924-25, 1925-26 and 1926-27, was 4s 11.6d [25p] in modern (central) schools (including schools providing 'courses of advanced instruction'); 2s 0.9d [10p] in senior schools or divisions; 1s. 9.1d [9p] in junior schools or departments; Os 6.8d [3p] in Infant schools or departments; and 1s 9.2d [9p] in small schools taking in one department pupils of all ages to that of 14+.

Further, it appears that the average annual expenditure on books alone in these main types of school and department taken as a whole, in the areas of the twenty-three authorities in question, was approximately 1s 8d [8p] per pupil. (15) The statistics supplied to us by the Board of Education show that the gross expenditure on 'books and stationery' (16) in public elementary schools in England and Wales during the financial year 1925-26 was 5s 7d [28p] per pupil.

Even though it is not possible to ascertain the precise amount spent on books alone in public elementary schools in England and Wales, it seems almost certain that the amount would represent less than one per cent of the total expenditure per child incurred in maintaining public elementary schools. (17)

Throughout our investigation, we have constantly borne in mind the need for economical administration, but we are deeply convinced of the necessity in many areas for a more liberal supply of books in general, and, in many specific instances, for the provision of school books of better educational quality. (18) It is our profound sense of the necessity of such an improvement in the book supply that has driven us to make suggestions which involve an increased expenditure on books. There can be no doubt that in many areas the amount allowed for books in different types of school is seriously inadequate. We accordingly recommend that local education authorities should look afresh into the whole question of the supply of books in the public elementary schools, and, where necessary, take appropriate steps to increase the total allowances granted for school supplies, and to ensure that any additional sums thus made available may be used for providing the schools adequately with books suited to their special needs.

Footnotes

(1) See Chapter 1, sections 16-19, and Chapter 4, sections 51-52.

(2) e.g. Appendix II, No. 2, and Appendix III.

(3) e.g. Appendix II, No. 15.

(4) e.g. Appendix II, No. 1, and No. 9.

(5) e.g. Appendix II, No. 3.

(6) This corroborates the policy of those authorities which provide for such marginal expenditure as a contingency item in their estimates. Though the need for special grants will vary from year to year in individual schools, the amount of the special fund itself may remain reasonably constant for the area as a whole.

(7) On 31 March 1927 there were 30,773 departments in public elementary schools in England and Wales. Of these, 16,518 had an average attendance of not over 150, and there were 2,041 with an average attendance of over 350.

(8) For the purposes of this inquiry the expression 'books' has been regarded as including primers, leaflets, instruction cards, picture cards, textbooks, atlases and the like, but as excluding stationery, wall maps, wall pictures and other educational equipment.

(9) In the official form of 'Education Account' prescribed by the Ministry of Health for the presentation of accounts to the Board of Education, 'books and stationery' are combined under one heading, 'furniture, apparatus and equipment' being another item. There is considerable diversity of practice as to what is included under 'books and stationery'.
Some authorities regard the term as being almost synonymous with 'consumable stores'. They accordingly include in this item of account needlework material, maps, small apparatus for infant schools, materials for science, art, handicraft and domestic teaching, as well as registers, baskets, inkwells, map hooks, thermometers and even blackboards and easels. The item 'furniture, apparatus and equipment' in this case will comprise school supplies of a more permanent character, such as cupboards, desks, tables and chairs.
Other authorities, however, consider some or all of the above small supplies as being 'apparatus', and include them in their accounts under 'furniture, apparatus and equipment'.

(10) This may not always be found practicable in the case of departments for infants only.

(11) We have received from one large authority a form which is really a small stock book covering four years. Under various headings of 'Literary Readers', 'Continuous Readers', 'Geography Readers', 'History Readers', 'Nature Readers', 'Poetry Books', 'Arithmetic Books', 'Music Books and Charts', and other 'Printed Books', it contains a record of the books in the school, their date of requisition, and their condition. The form is kept posted up by the head teacher, and is sent each year to the education office with the requisition for books, so that the needs of the school may be more clearly seen by the inspector who deals with the requisition. The use of such a form would bring to light such cases as we mention.

(12) See also footnote 11 above, describing a form of small stock book for school books alone, which is posted up by the head teacher and sent by him to the office with his annual book requisition.

(13) See Section 43.

(14) In Appendix IV a tabular statement is given showing the average amount spent on school books per child in the several types of school in the twenty-three areas. It will be seen from the table that the range of variation between the authorities is considerable.

(15) See Appendix IV. Under the existing system whereby books remain the property of the local education authority, the 'life' of a book must be taken into account. The average expenditure per pupil should be multiplied by four or five, or by whatever other figure may be taken as representing the average number of years during which a book is used in the school. (See Chapter 6, section 75.)

(16) See footnote 9 above.

(17) The net expenditure per child on elementary education in England and Wales during 1924-25, was £11 13s 2d [£11.66]; during 1925-26 £11 15s 10d [£11.79]; and during 1926-27, £11 16s 8d [£11.83].

(18) The 'quality' of school books is discussed in Chapter 2, Sections 24-40 passim.