Hadow (1928)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Membership, Analysis, Preface, Introduction
Chapter 1 Books in schools 1810 to 1928
Chapter 2 Place and function of books
Chapter 3 Provision of books by LEAs
Chapter 4 School and public libraries
Chapter 5 Guidance for teachers, production of books
Chapter 6 Cost and use of books
Chapter 7 Conclusions and recommendations
Appendix I List of witnesses
Appendix II Practice of sample LEAs
Appendix III Provision of books in London
Appendix IV Expenditure on books
Appendix V Provision of books in Scotland
Appendix VI Publication of new books
Index

Chapter 2 The place and function of books in public elementary schools: the volume, quality and character of the present supply in the various branches of the elementary school curriculum: Welsh books
[pages 18 - 56]

A: The place and function of books in elementary schools

20. Our evidence (1) suggests not only that the supply of books used in schools requires to be increased, but also that their quality not infrequently stands in need of improvement. At the risk of labouring a truism, we would urge that too much care cannot be taken to ensure that, so far as possible, the best books, and only the best books, should be used in schools. Growing minds are influenced, and sometimes strongly influenced, by the stimulus afforded by their studies, and by the intellectual food which is offered them in school. If they are to learn to admire what is admirable in literature and in human life, their taste must not be corrupted by the reading of works which are false in sentiment and second-rate in expression. If they are to acquire a habit of clear and logical thought, if their imagination is to be aroused, and their capacity for analysis and reflection strengthened, the books which they use in studying the different subjects of the curriculum must as far as possible not merely be accurate in substance, but also be written in a lucid and vigorous style, so as to arouse interest and convey inspiration.

It will be seen from the historical sketch in Chapter 1 that the place and function of school books were formerly, in effect, prescribed and defined by the Education Department. The chief use of books was to teach reading, mainly by reading aloud. It was expected that by reading aloud a second purpose would be served, that of acquiring a knowledge of the subject matter read, particularly in history, geography and the elements of science. In good schools the teachers doubtless took care that their classes understood and enjoyed the books which they were reading, but contemporary reports of inspectors and others give the impression that in the less efficient schools the reading was a mechanical process that made little demand on the intelligence.

Although the Board of Education no longer lay down any specific requirements regarding the character and object of reading, nevertheless directly and through the medium of its Handbook of Suggestions for the Consideration of Teachers, the Board do in fact afford very considerable guidance. The new edition of the Handbook of Suggestions (1927), which is supplementary to the Code, is now treated as the main channel for the expression of the Board's views on curricula, and contains many passages bearing on books and reading. The volume begins with the introduction that for twenty-two years formed the Preface to the Code of Regulations for Public Elementary Schools, in which the following pertinent passage occurs:

'It will be the aim of the school ... to arouse in the children a living interest in the ideals and achievements of mankind, and to bring them to some familiarity with the literature and history of their own country; to give them some power over language as an instrument of thought and expression, and, while making them conscious of the limitations of their knowledge, to develop in them such a taste for good reading and thoughtful study as will enable them to increase that knowledge in after years by their own efforts.'

21. It will be generally agreed that two main uses of books are for enjoyment and for gaining knowledge. Schools require books also for the more specific purposes of teaching children to read, and, through reading and study, of increasing their power to understand and use their own language; in short of teaching English. That books should be enjoyed by children reading alone and that they should be regarded as sources of knowledge, to be searched by individuals, was hardly recognised in public elementary schools until comparatively recent times. A reading book was primarily one by which reading was taught. The threefold function of books is now generally understood in schools. This does not mean, however, that different kinds of books are required for each function. Indeed the skill of a teacher is nowhere shown so clearly as in his power to use a good book for all three objects as occasion arises. At the same time, when he considers his scheme of work and is selecting the appropriate books, the teacher will do well to discriminate between the various kinds of books which he desires, in accordance with the use which he proposes to make of them.

22. There are two types of book which must, for the most part, be specially written for the elementary school. They are primers and textbooks. In the early stages of learning to read, children seem to require books that advance gradually in technical difficulty from stage to stage. Though English literature is singularly rich in easy prose and simple verse, it is nevertheless hardly possible for those teaching beginners wholly to dispense with the books written expressly for them. There is also the specific kind of book which is known as a textbook. The meaning of the term is a little vague. In one sense any book used in school is a textbook; for a fairy story or one of Scott's novels may properly be thought of as a textbook when it is read with a definite school purpose in view. In another sense a textbook is a book specially written for study or for reference, such as a compendium of English grammar or a book of dates or a manual of science. The Board's Handbook of Suggestions, employing the word in the second sense, rarely recommends textbooks for elementary schools. It would seem to be the view of the writers that the framework of exact knowledge in the various subjects is to be built up by the teacher, who will himself supply it or see that his class derives it from the books which he places in their hands. In our Report, for the sake of clearness, we avoid the term textbook except where it is required in its second and narrower sense.

The books required for elementary schools fall into two broad categories: books for the class, copies of which should be provided for every member of the class for use in the appropriate lessons, and books for the school library. We are anxious to preserve the books in the first category from becoming mere school books. They should be so well written and so skilfully chosen that a child will gladly read them again when they cease to be his daily companions. The suggestions contained in other sections of this chapter will develop in more detail the general principles to which we attach importance.

B: The volume, quality and character of the present supply of books in the various branches of the elementary school curriculum

THE GENERAL APPEARANCE, TYPE ETC, OF SCHOOL BOOKS: ILLUSTRATIONS

23. It is evident that great pains are now taken by the majority of publishers to produce books for use in elementary schools that shall be attractive in appearance, easily legible and capable of hard wear. There is little doubt that the improvement in the general appearance of school books during the last decade has been largely due to the Report on the influence of school books upon eyesight issued in 1913 by the British Association. (2) The improvement may also be partly due to the standards laid down (largely on the basis of the same report), regarding the appearance, type, etc. of school books, by the London County Council and other local education authorities which issue lists of approved books. Our witnesses, however, pointed out that there were a few types of book used in elementary schools the form of which was still unattractive. Special mention was made of the small inexpensive editions of the Bible (3) and small English dictionaries. Glossy paper seems to be still used to some extent for school books. One of the defects of this kind of paper is that, when the book is opened, it presents pages with curved surfaces and that therefore a vertical strip of print appears grey instead of black.

We were told that some school books at present in use are too large to be comfortably handled, at any rate by younger children.

We fully recognise that many books gain largely in interest by suitable illustrations. Illustrations are indeed essential in books for infants and young children. But we think that many of the illustrations in current use, particularly in books for older children, are unnecessarily elaborate, and, especially if they are coloured, increase the cost of production without proportionately adding to the usefulness of the book. Similar considerations apply to some of the small maps, plans, etc, which are often included in school books on geography, history and literature. We would draw attention to the inappropriateness of many illustrations, and still more to the fact that they are often unsuitably placed in relation to the part of the text which they are intended to elucidate.

While the question of school pictures is not included in the scope of our reference, there is a class of pictorial illustration which can scarcely be separated from the literary, geographical, historical or scientific matter related to it, and which accordingly falls within the province of any inquiry dealing with the supply of school books. We consider that all illustrations for teaching purposes should be accompanied by sufficient letterpress to enable the pupil to discover and understand the significant features conveyed by the illustration. Much excellent material of this kind has been and is being produced by the public museums and art galleries, by the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, by the Public Record Office, by such bodies as the Society of Antiquaries, and by various archaeological societies throughout the country. This material includes reproductions of historic masterpieces, of ancient maps and plans, and of scenes and characters depicted on illuminated manuscripts, together with photographs of ancient monuments and buildings and of objects of historic interest in museums and art galleries.

We think that local education authorities and teachers in public elementary schools might with advantage make more use of the various publications issued by the public museums and art galleries (4) and by commercial and non-commercial associations throughout the country. Further, we would urge those concerned with the production of school books, and the local education authorities, to give due regard to these sources.

Some of our witnesses suggested that many school books might be replaced by a 'loose-leaf system', i.e. an arrangement by which each pupil is supplied with a binder or cover, into which loose sheets or portions of a textbook, sufficient for a term or a school year, can be slipped, according to the needs of the class or of the individual pupil. On the whole, we think that any advantages which such a scheme may offer in the classroom are decisively out-balanced by its drawbacks. We feel that the word 'book' should have the same connotation in school as in the larger world outside.

Our attention has been repeatedly called to the fact that a number of school books do not contain the name of the author and the date of publication. We would urge very strongly that all books intended for use in schools should contain the author's name and the date at which they were published.

BOOKS FOR INFANTS' DEPARTMENTS

24. There was general agreement among our witnesses that an Infants' department should be adequately equipped with the following types of books:

(a) Picture books. Children must learn the names of things before they learn to read those names. A good supply of picture books is, therefore, essential. These should include pictures of things with which children are familiar and also pictures of what is outside their immediate experience. The pictures should be clear and simple in treatment and, as a rule, should be coloured, but the less realistic black and white illustration has an educational value of its own, though it does not perhaps appeal so directly to very young children.

(b) The 'work' type of reading book. Another important way in which children realise the practical value of reading is by interpreting written instructions. These instructions should be concerned with things to do or to make. Pictures to paint or to cut out (together with printed directions) are published in book form, but many teachers prefer to make their own sets. In this case the necessary material should be provided.

(c) Story books. A strong inducement in learning to read is the interest of a continuous narrative. Children are soon ready to enjoy a complete story book, and the best introduction to the use of a library in later life is a table in a corner of the classroom from which each child can choose its reading book. The books should be of many kinds: nature stories, fairy tales, stories of how other children live, stories of heroes - all should be included. Each book should be complete in itself and should not be too long: the book should be well printed and illustrated, and the pictures should be so set as not to cut up the printed type. These primers for young children will, as a rule, have to be specially written, but they might also include nursery rhymes, simple verse not written for school purposes, and nonsense verse, as well as the ever popular stories. They need not be unreal or artificial, nor need they be scrupulously graded in difficulty. It is often desirable to have a wide range of difficulty presented by such books so as to suit the different capacities of the children in one class, inasmuch as beginners in reading vary greatly in their rate of progress. Such books should be so well written that the children will be attracted to read them again and again. Some of our witnesses complained that in spite of the vast number of small books written for infants, there was nevertheless a lack of first-rate books of the type which we suggest.

These three types of books all provide for individual reading, allowing the child to go at its own pace. A certain number of class books will also be needed in accordance with whatever method is adopted for teaching children to read; these should be graded, well written and printed in clear type. There is, as a rule, an adequate supply of class books, but the greater need is for books to meet the requirements of those schools where individual methods have been adopted. In this connection it must be remembered:

(i) A page of pictures is more quickly understood than a page of print, and picture books soon suffer from wear and tear. It is important that children's first associations with reading should not be with a dirty or torn book.

(ii) Teachers in infants' schools supplement books by a great deal of apparatus. The material for this should be provided, and can hardly be separated from the allowance of books.

BOOKS FOR PUPILS IN JUNIOR SCHOOLS AND DEPARTMENTS

25. It is one of the functions of schools to endeavour to foster a love of reading and to train children in the use of books. No boy or girl has acquired the art of reading who finds difficulty with the 'mechanics' of reading, is poor in comprehension, slow in silent reading, who misses significant parts of the subject matter, or does not begin to find pleasure in the use of books. A pupil's attitude towards books is very much a matter of imitation and is profoundly affected by the general atmosphere of the home and of the classroom. Good and bad reading habits are of slow growth; they are, however, already well established by the time children leave the junior school. If the foundations of reading as an art are to be properly laid, junior departments need to be adequately equipped with books for (i) oral reading, (ii) individual, group and class study, (iii) silent reading for information and enjoyment and (iv) reference.

Skill in oral reading is not identical with skill in the art of reading. Quite apart from its aesthetic value, oral reading is indispensable for the acquisition of mechanical proficiency and for the formation of sound technique. By common consent well graded literary or general reading books are best suited for this purpose. Excellent series of such books are available, differing in aim, in difficulty and in range of vocabulary; and it is important that classes should not be limited to a single set of these books. For the purpose of acquiring technique in reading, books of the type of the older 'subject readers' will rarely be found suitable. Some modern books for oral reading take the form of prose miscellanies of a higher standard of difficulty, which can be read and re-read by the pupils and the teacher. They will also contain passages suitable for learning by heart and for class study. Closely allied with them are anthologies of verse, which should be available for every class.

In addition to books suitable for oral reading, others are required for individual, group or class study. With the growth of individual work and of supervised private study, the older subject reading books have given place to an increasing number of class books intended for such work and study. These approximate, as children grow older, to simple textbooks, the pupils' reading being directed by appropriate questions. Books of this kind require to be supplemented by books for silent reading, consisting of story books, accounts of life in other ages and in other lands, books of general information, books dealing with travel, hobbies and natural history, and children's magazines. These make up the class and school libraries, the more advanced books being used chiefly as works of reference. In general, single copies, or, in certain instances, small sets of not more than half a dozen copies will prove sufficient. For the older pupils simple atlases and dictionaries are necessary.

BOOKS FOR PUPILS IN SENIOR SCHOOLS AND DIVISIONS

26. Children between the ages of 11+ and 14 in senior divisions and in ordinary elementary schools need also to be supplied with books for study, for supplementary reading, and for reference. With the new outlook on education for children over the age of 11 and the consequential reorganisation of schools, there has arisen a need for new types of curricula, greater variation in methods of instruction, and books which lend themselves adequately to the new conditions. The demand is for books suitable for individual and class study and for books of reference within the capacities of the pupils. Increasing use is being made of textbooks such as are met with in the lower forms of grammar schools (5) and in junior technical schools. The outlook, method of treatment and content of books which may be appropriate to boys and girls pursuing a grammar school course of at least five years do not adequately meet the needs of the large body of pupils who will leave school at 14 or 15 years of age. It is one of the tasks of the future to work out suitable courses of instruction and to provide books which meet the requirements of this type of pupil. Little difficulty is generally experienced in finding suitable English books, for oral reading and repetition as well as for silent reading. Somewhat greater difficulty is experienced in discovering the right book in arithmetic, elementary mathematics, geography, history and elementary science. A good deal can be done by employing more than one class book or by supplementing the book by the teacher's own notes. It is because of the difficulties encountered in getting exactly the books required that many teachers prefer to dispense with class books altogether in certain subjects, and rely on a well equipped class library to supplement the class lessons and to furnish material for carefully directed reading and study.

Though it may not be possible to impart to all pupils a love of literature and a taste for books, it is practicable to teach all of them to use books, if only such publications as simple reference books (e.g. encyclopedias for children and smaller year books), and to get them to consult books of general information connected with their interests and hobbies.

BOOKS FOR USE IN SELECTIVE MODERN SCHOOLS AND ADVANCED CLASSES

27. In view of the development of more advanced instruction with an industrial, agricultural, commercial or domestic bias in selective modern schools (5) and advanced classes, where the pupils remain in increasing numbers up to the age of 15 or even 16, there is a growing demand for books specially adapted for these students. The tendency is for these books to bring school studies into closer touch with ordinary life. In all subjects they sacrifice something of the academic material which is necessary for a still further period of formal education and concentrate upon that which is more directly related to the education given through the work-a-day world. Moreover, the lengthened school life is in itself tending to raise the standard throughout the school course, and books of a kind more advanced than has normally been thought possible will be necessary. In English, the texts should be at least as advanced in character as those for pupils of corresponding ages in grammar schools. This particularly applies to modern schools in which a foreign language is not taught. (6) But the study of these texts is directed more to forms of expression than to linguistic and grammatical details. In mathematics and science the practical side is being more emphasised. Books on these subjects intended for selective modern schools and advanced classes will tend to include only such an amount of theory as is essential for a clear understanding of the basic principles involved. They will therefore frequently provide work and exercises which are in advance of the theoretical knowledge usually imparted at a similar stage. In history and geography, the demand for more advanced textbooks will no doubt to some extent be met by those already provided for grammar schools, but even so, others will be needed with a content of a more specialised kind intimately connected with the interests and outlook of the pupils. In addition to these changes in the content of the books dealing with the usual school studies more books will be needed to meet developments in 'practical instruction'. The supply of books dealing, for example, with domestic subjects has scarcely begun.

THE BIBLE

28. We have thought it of great importance to consider the question of the supply of bibles in elementary schools. Quite apart from the manifest value of Bible reading as a part of religious instruction, it is beyond dispute that for an English child the Bible provides the best possible introduction to the noblest traditions of the English tongue. (7) Much of our literature bears indelible witness to its powerful formative influence, and it is indeed not too much to say that a great deal of our speech in current and even colloquial use can hardly be fully understood without some acquaintance with biblical language and content. We have been assured by several witnesses that recent generations of school children show less and less acquaintance with what may be called the traditional and illustrative commonplaces of the English language. The Pilgrims Progress, we are told, is so little read that children nowadays cannot follow familiar references to Doubting Castle or Vanity Fair. Further, even such biblical phrases as a mess of pottage, Job's comforters and a barren fig tree are said to have no significance to children. The disappearance of these rich commonplaces of traditional English speech must not only weaken the child's and subsequently the adult's power to understand the great classics of our language, but must also entail a progressive impoverishment of imagination and feeling which probably goes far beyond mere language. This makes it more important than ever that adequate facilities for bible reading should exist in schools. Unfortunately, our evidence does not allow us to doubt that the supply of bibles in many elementary schools is unsatisfactory. While many, perhaps most, authorities are prepared to supply the Bible for the use of each child who can read it, there appear to be other authorities that scarcely provide more than one bible for each class. Even where individual bibles are available, they are nearly always, and naturally enough in present circumstances, cheap copies of the complete Authorised Version, and are therefore meanly and unattractively bound and printed in too small type; from such copies the pages most required are often apt to disappear after they have been in use for a few months or even weeks. It is true that in some areas 'children's bibles' are to some extent used, but these are often comparatively expensive and the selections are not always well chosen.

We think that one or more well printed copies of the Bible in large and attractive type and form should be included in each school library. Moreover, every elementary school child who can read sufficiently well, should be provided with a copy of one or more portions of the Bible, suitable for study, in a similar type and form. A number of well-printed editions of separate books of the Bible, and more especially the gospels, have been published at very cheap rates, and are widely used in schools. In addition to such separate texts of portions of the scriptures, there is room for a good anthology of the finest passages of the Bible suitable for school use and produced at a reasonable cost. Several good anthologies of this type have been published, but most of them are comparatively expensive. Such an anthology as we contemplate would consist of passages from the Bible which should be, so far as possible, complete in themselves, and it would be very useful in connection with the syllabuses of religious instruction. It is hardly necessary to say that we deprecate the publication of any books for school use which attempt to retell the Bible story in other words. Omission need do no harm: alteration is quite a different matter.

ENGLISH

(a) Reading books for older children

29. It is customary to provide graded reading books for the use of junior pupils after they have left the Infant School. The double purpose which such reading books attempt to serve is to cultivate in ordered progress a knowledge of the native language, and to inspire the pupils from the first with the conviction that there is meaning in print and that enjoyment can be derived from reading.

With due regard to the primary purpose of such a book, it may not be possible always to ensure that only what can be regarded as a permanent contribution to English literature shall find a place therein. Our witnesses were, however, insistent that even the most elementary books should not consist either of great literature recast by an inferior hand, or of narratives and descriptions without literary merit; but that they should, in the earliest possible stage, take the form of carefully graded miscellanies of verse and prose of acknowledged literary value. The awakening of literary appreciation is incidental to the process of learning to read. The use of real literature, therefore, should not be delayed on the ground that the mechanical difficulties of reading have not been entirely overcome. Thus only will it be found possible to approach the ideal which is presented in the Report of the Departmental Committee on the Teaching of English in England - that 'we should offer to the young nothing which is not in some degree a work of art, the sincere expression of the writer himself'.

Many witnesses severely criticised the character of the notes, questions and exercises, which are appended to the excerpts in literary reading books, as being often pedantic, artificial and futile. There is doubtless much substance in this criticism. Notes should be strictly confined to the elucidation of the text; and they should not be elaborate. It should be recognised that a degree of literary appreciation is possible in the child without complete understanding. As to printed questions and exercises, the fewer there are, the better.

On the other hand the amount of time given in school to 'silent reading' has sometimes encroached unduly upon the time formerly available for the accurate study of the meaning and content of language on a properly graded scheme. Skilfully constructed teaching glosses [explanations inserted in a text](similar to those in many French elementary school books) will do much to assist the teacher to attain his chief objective, that of training the children to understand a text for themselves. No doubt there will always be excellent teachers who will prefer to use plain texts. But such teachers will realise that they take upon their shoulders the full and unassisted burden of seeing that the pupils secure a degree of accuracy appropriate to their age in their comprehension of the language and content of what they read.

Several witnesses were of opinion that the book of extracts may usefully be replaced at some stages by an abridged classical novel, which should be chosen as much for its form and structure as for the arresting character of the story. As to this, we feel that whenever possible (and it is often possible), standard literature should be presented to the pupils without abridgement. When abridgement is necessary, it should be limited to the judicious excision of certain passages, and nothing should be introduced in their place but the briefest and simplest statement to render the subsequent pages intelligible. In no case should the book be recast, or the story retold, by an inferior hand.

(b) Anthologies

A large variety of anthologies of poetry is now available; and there can be no doubt that the range of poetry read in elementary schools has been very usefully broadened during the last two decades. On the other hand there is much to show that in the reaction from the old custom of learning 'standard extracts' a good deal of verse has crept into the elementary school that is unsuitable or undeserving of its place. While we welcome the widening of the field of poetical studies by the publication of new anthologies, we regret that many of the old favourites of English tradition, such as Byron's stanzas on The Eve of Waterloo, Cowper's John Gilpin, Campbell's Hohenlinden and Gray's Elegy, have been neglected of late. There seems to be a real danger lest the familiar tradition of English poetry should be forgotten.

We think that there is an insufficient supply of prose anthologies for school use. Such anthologies should, in our opinion, fulfil the following general conditions. Passages in the best literary form should be selected; but the field of choice is so wide that they need never be chosen for reasons of style alone. Each passage should be so far as possible a complete whole in itself. A few lines of explanation should be given to indicate, e.g. the authorship and the work from which the passage has been taken.

(c) Grammar

It is probably true to say that for some time past the study of formal grammar has been almost wholly omitted in many elementary schools. This is no doubt due to the fact that this study was confined to grammatical technicalities. Even in the past, however, many teachers, while recognising the defects of such a form of instruction, nevertheless realised the difficulty of teaching language as a means of expression without reference to grammatical terms. In their schools the teaching of formal grammar was not abandoned, but a different method of approach was adopted. There has thus grown up a demand for books on grammar which will be more concerned with the examination and study of current English. This is a sound development. By the use of such books, teachers will avoid the pedantry which often arises from a highly specialised study of formal grammar, but will none the less train their pupils to speak and write English with clarity and precision.

HISTORY

30. During the last ten or fifteen years there has been considerable improvement both in the technical production of history books for young people and in the suitability of the subject matter included in them. The objections to history books of the older type were that they were too much confined to political history; that the generalisations which they included, however just, presumed a background of knowledge and experience which children did not possess; that the arrangement of the subject matter under reigns destroyed the sense of historical continuity which is essential in the study of history; that illustrations were crude and inaccurate and, when used, were as likely to falsify as to illuminate the subject illustrated; and that the vocabulary and diction were often too difficult for children. But on each of these points considerable improvements have been made and continue to be made. The end of the last century and the beginning of the present saw a generation of historians whose labours not only aroused public opinion to the serious bearing of historical studies upon national life, but were also directly instrumental in bringing history into the schools in a more educative and attractive form, at any rate for older students. As a consequence of these developments, increased attention began to be paid to the production of books on history suitable for quite young people. In this connection the most striking changes have been - the greater prominence given to the social and economic aspects of history, the introduction of material derived from local history, a more adequate recognition of English history as a part of European and World history, the production of illustrations which were both at first-hand and of first-rate historical value, and in general, an emphasis on the cultural rather than the political aspects of history. In addition to changes in textbooks great improvement has also been made in the production of historical atlases, one or two of which are excellent. This is all to the good, and all these developments are tending to make history one of the most popular subjects in the curriculum. At the same time the extension of the historical field has made necessary a revaluation, a readjustment, and a regrouping of historical details, and many books now attempt to deal with fewer topics, but to illuminate the topics selected by a greater amount of instructive and accurate fact.

There is perhaps in these newer tendencies some danger that historical time sequence may be somewhat blurred, and outstanding personalities neglected. But in the best books the first of these dangers is met by frequent and systematic insertion of dates, by the use of timecharts, or by the adoption of both these expedients; and the second is unlikely to become permanent because the strong appeal which striking biographical details and dramatic events make to children is well understood and generally recognised.

All these developments, therefore, appear to be excellent, but much remains to be done. For younger children between the ages of six and eleven there is an insufficient supply of books giving stories drawn from classical history or, again, from the history of ancient civilisations, which might well be illustrated, e.g. from the historical portions of the Old Testament. Similarly, for pupils of the same age a greater variety of satisfactory large pictorial illustrations suitable for teaching purposes is needed.

In books for older children improvements may be effected in various directions. Some of the movements of history, e.g. the Renaissance, are occasionally treated without proper reference to their wider range, and attention is directed only to a few persons and incidents connected with a single aspect. Again music, architecture, painting, and the arts and crafts generally are seldom treated with a fulness proportionate either to their importance or to their suitability for interesting the minds of children. The same criticism applies to the treatment of the history of science, and again, if in a less degree, to the descriptions of the development of the Dominions. This is the more surprising as many of these matters interest young people profoundly, and collections of illustrations to supplement the text can easily be made. Another serious defect was brought to our notice, though it is one which it is more difficult to remedy than those we have already mentioned. In some books considerable revision and readjustment of the historical matter is necessary to bring it into accord not only with the results of recent historical research but even with results that have been established almost for a generation.

These remarks apply to books specially written for school purposes. There is however, another class of historical works to which we would draw special attention, since the study of history demands more than a textbook for its proper enjoyment and profit. A large number of publications of great use to schools are now being issued at very cheap rates by the British Museum, the Victoria and Albert Museum, various Art Galleries, the London Museum and the Public Record Office; (8) and many of these should find a place in school libraries, in addition to the usual biographies and historical novels. There is also much excellent material, but at a rather higher cost, which has been published in monographs dealing with monasteries, cathedrals, churches, castles, historic houses, furniture, dresses, armour and the like. Teachers and officials of local education authorities might explore the possibilities of forming collections of such works for school libraries or teachers' libraries; and to such collections might be added books which deal in an adequate but popular manner with the antiquities and historical associations of different districts. It is probable that, from these various sources, useful and interesting history libraries could be built up in the course of a number of years at a comparatively small annual cost.

There is also the question of further provision of books for selective modern schools and advanced classes. Some of these will necessarily be similar to that already recommended for older children; but much new ground will have to be broken. We think that in addition to the general course followed in such schools and classes, it may be possible and desirable to provide for some specialised work of the kind suggested for experiment in our Report on the Education of the Adolescent. (9) Other alternatives may also be considered appropriate, e.g. the development of some historic industry or of some particular craft. In any case it will probably be found that the interest of pupils in modern schools and advanced classes, even in general history, is best sustained through some aspect of the subject which not only interests them but has also some immediate relation to their own experiences. The supply of books written on such lines and adapted to the interests and capacities of these pupils has largely to be created. Finally, we would recommend that at least some of the works of a few of the great historians, such as Gibbon and Macaulay, should be available in the school library.

GEOGRAPHY

31. The changes in the content of books on geography are more general and more complete than those in books on history. The type of book which confines itself to lists of names and summaries of geographical information is ceasing to be produced. In all modern textbooks the descriptive portions are concerned less with the provision of mere information and more with the supply of geographical material of a kind and in a form which will help the child to appreciate both the interaction between geographical and climatic conditions and the influence of such conditions and their interaction upon human effort. In this way imagination and reasoning are called into play more than memory. Even in books for younger children the matter is selected with the same end in view: e.g. the 'tales of other lands' which form such a common feature in these books almost always deal with regions where geographical conditions are in strong contrast with our own, and where, as a consequence, the connection between the habits of people and the geographical environment is striking and easily seen.

So far this is a great improvement, but this change of content has created new problems, and criticism is now directed towards the quantity of suitable illustrations, the adequacy and accuracy of the subject matter, and the extent to which the treatment is scientific.

There appears to be, for younger children, an insufficient supply of suitable pictures, both of the larger kind for class teaching, and of the smaller sort in books for individual use. In this connection we would draw attention to the admirable posters issued from time to time by railway and shipping companies, and by travel agencies generally, and to the many illustrated guide books which may often be obtained at a trifling cost. The agencies of the Dominion Governments, too, have some remarkable photographs of life and scenery in the Dominions, and these might be reproduced in a form suitable for school use. (10) Again, some of the posters published by the Empire Marketing Board (11) are well adapted for use in schools.

Nevertheless there are parts of the world for which satisfactory pictures either do not exist or are only to be found in works not usually available for schools. Even such pictures as do exist, especially those included in geography textbooks, are not always used in the best way. It was stated, for example, by our witnesses, that in some cases the illustrations had little bearing on the text, and that, in other cases the relation between the two was insufficiently indicated. We are of opinion that great care is needed in the selection of geographical pictures. The pictures should in every case illustrate some salient feature. When included in school books, they should amplify definite portions of the text; and each illustration should, if possible, adjoin the relevant text, and its purpose and relation thereto should be made clear.

The use of maps as illustrations was also criticised by many witnesses. It was pointed out that sometimes the maps included in the books are merely inferior reproductions of those which are normally included in school atlases, and that as atlases are now in general use among older children, such maps merely waste space and add to the cost of the book without any compensating advantage. On the other hand there are sketch maps and diagrams which when not too small do much to enliven the text - maps which serve to illustrate some exceptional feature, such as the controlling influence of local peculiarities of configuration, or some special distribution of temperature or rainfall or vegetation or population; and these maps undoubtedly enhance the value of the text and are very interesting to children.

There was much criticism of the inadequacy and inaccuracy of the subject matter in many textbooks, and on a first view there appeared to be grounds for the dissatisfaction expressed. At the Imperial Education Conference of 1927, reference was made to this point: and early in the present year specific examples have been alleged of inadequate treatment and misleading statements in some of the textbooks dealing with the Dominions. To meet this criticism it might be possible to make some readjustments in the books for the junior children without detriment to a well-balanced view of the world being secured at a later stage. The tales and descriptions of other lands might include a larger proportion of stories dealing with the Dominions since most of the great natural regions of the world are represented within them.

In considering the work of the older children, however, it must be borne in mind that the newer forms of geographical study demand a more extended literary treatment, and this, in itself, while making the books more readable and the subject more educative, reduces the amount of geographical detail which can be incorporated in the text. Moreover, one of the main aims in schools is to give to the pupils a well proportioned view of the world as a whole, however simple the view may be. In doing this it is natural and usual to give the greater amount of detail to the Home Country and the Dominions. But all this has to be done at a very small cost. If textbooks for the older children treated the various parts of the world, proportionately to their importance, on the scale that seems to be desired, the annual expenditure on geography books alone - allowing for a book a life of six years - would amount to a larger sum per pupil than is allowed for all his books together. It may also be doubted whether, in dealing with such an amount of detail, a child could get his well proportioned view of the world. And it is in overcoming these two difficulties that an author practises elimination to such an extent as to give the appearance of inadequate treatment, with the ensuing possibility of misleading impressions, when the text is viewed in its application to separate areas. A partial solution would appear to be the provision of supplementary books containing first-hand description of other countries and of such areas as have a special significance for British children, in addition to the usual stories of exploration and discovery, of travel and adventure. It might be possible, for example, for the various Dominion Agencies to supply local education authorities with leaflets of descriptive matter to be distributed to the schools, as is already done from time to time in some instances.

The problem of combining adequate detail with a broad view is perhaps best met by books which deal with geography on a regional basis. We were told that there were too few series of books in which this was fully attempted. Yet the whole trend is in that direction, and continents are, in almost all books, treated on a regional basis before the political divisions are taken, though it is important that pupils should know in the end what is the geographical content of the larger and more important political units.

Another criticism was that some books are too scientific in their treatment, the subject matter of such books consisting mainly of data drawn from physical and meteorological phenomena to the exclusion of descriptive detail, with the result that the pupils' work is too strictly confined to reasoning on the data supplied. But such criticism is losing much of its force, since there is a tendency even in this type of book for more explanation and more descriptive matter to be included. It is becoming generally recognised that for pupils over the age of 11 the content should neither be entirely descriptive as it is for younger children, nor severely scientific as it is for advanced students, but should be transitional in character, containing a blend of both elements.

In discussing books it is impossible to omit some reference to maps and atlases. It is unnecessary to urge that these should play a leading part in geographical study: the part which they play in many schools is so great that the atlas is probably subjected to greater wear and tear than any other book used by the older children.

So much progress has been made on both the technical and the educational side of map production that it is scarcely possible to exaggerate the importance of making constant use of the atlas. We would also draw the attention of teachers, especially those in rural districts, to the valuable maps issued by the Ordnance Survey. (12) These can be obtained by schools at very cheap rates.

Finally, we return to the question of books for supplementary reading and for reference. We have already referred to the necessity for first-hand material such as books of exploration and discovery, of adventure and travel, and for first-hand descriptions of various parts of the world. There is also another body of material which should be brought to the notice of young people. Since the teaching of geography has so definitely changed and the geographical detail of the world is so rapidly increasing and changing, it has become a matter of first importance that older children should know something of the more accessible sources from which trustworthy information about the various parts of the world can be obtained. We think it is essential that the senior pupils should be familiarised with such publications, as railway and steamship guides, Whitaker's Almanack or the Statesman's Year Book, the Statistical Abstract of Trade, and the material supplied by the various Dominion Agencies. We are not suggesting any ambitious study of these publications, but we regard the knowledge of certain standard sources of information, and the ability to make use of them, as a necessary complement to the general work in geography.

MODERN FOREIGN LANGUAGES

32. Reference is necessary to the supply of school books on modern languages, though they are not ordinarily taught in elementary schools other than selective modern schools. It would seem that modern schools generally take advantage of the books on modern languages which have been published in large numbers for the use of grammar schools. So far as these books consist of easy literature, they are useful independently of the type of school and the length of the course in the language. But it is questionable whether the textbooks (13) are always well adapted for the special needs of the modern school, as they usually contemplate a longer course than is possible in such a school, and sometimes presuppose an early age for beginning the language. In view of what we have written on this subject in our Report on The Education of the Adolescent (14) we need not do more here than suggest that there is room for books which envisage a three or a four years' course complete in itself but affording a sound foundation for further study after school, whether in the direction of commerce or of literary study.

ARITHMETIC, ELEMENTARY MATHEMATICS, BOOKKEEPING AND COMMERCIAL SUBJECTS

(a) Arithmetic

33. None of our witnesses questioned the need for providing every child, in those classes where fair facility in reading had been acquired, with a book of arithmetical examples covering the work that was being taken. The use of such a book not only economises the time of the teacher, but also relieves him from the necessity of framing examples, sufficient in number, variety, and difficulty, to meet the needs of the children. Great improvements have already been effected in such books in order to meet the demand for a more intelligent treatment of the subject, and some of the most recent books are to a great extent free from the defects mentioned below.

It is still, however, often the case that the arithmetic books leave the teaching of principles and the elucidation of special difficulties wholly to the teacher. The introduction of individual methods of teaching has shown that the inclusion of some explanation of processes is desirable, in order that it may not be wholly impossible for the pupil to inform himself, if for any reason he must on occasion proceed unaided. The need for books containing such explanation is particularly pressing in small schools. Again, the development of sectional teaching in large classes has created a demand for books which contain several sets of graded examples upon each arithmetical principle. Each set would include the various types of example depending upon the principle, but the differing sets should be graded in order of difficulty. This will secure to each section of the class a reasonable amount of practice in computation. Connected with this is the problem of providing books, the contents of which traverse the same ground in arithmetic as the ordinary class book, but in which examples are framed to meet the needs of backward children. It would appear that up to the present little attention has been devoted to the provision of such books.

In addition to the comparative lack of arithmetic books adapted for individual methods of instruction and for sectional class teaching, other more general defects of character were brought to our notice by different witnesses. Attention was called, for example, to the modern tendency to omit from class books of arithmetic almost all exercises involving mere calculation. It would seem, however, that this defect is not so serious as might at first sight appear, since it is not difficult for the teacher to supply examples which involve mechanical work only. Nevertheless, when such exercises are not included in the textbook, there is a danger of this side of the work being overlooked. 'Mental' arithmetic, too, is liable to suffer in the same way, and there seems to be a need for books which include mental exercises designed to afford practice in the application of principles before the exercises involving written work are undertaken. A more serious weakness is the character of the exercises usually provided for revision. They are often inserted only at the end of the book, on the assumption that all the ground has been covered. We think it is essential that 'mixed' exercises for the revision of all previous work should be provided at the intermediate stages of progress in each year's course. No indication should be given of the particular operations involved. Moreover, in the framing of tests generally there is ample scope for freshness of expression and application.

Perhaps the most serious criticisms were those directed against the content of the problems and the form in which such problems were stated. We were told by several witnesses that examples were often highly artificial, remote from the experience of children, and expressed in a monotonous way. We understand, however, that much attention is being given to these defects, and that considerable improvements have already been effected in a number of textbooks. It is essential that there should be a sense of reality in all the exercises, and that they should be expressed in as varied and as interesting a form as possible. Furthermore, it is perhaps insufficiently recognised that the real difficulties in arithmetical problems are often not difficulties of calculation but difficulties of ideas and language. It is, therefore, most important that every exercise should be stated in clear, simple and unequivocal language. This is perhaps asking much; but if exercises involve ideas which cannot be clearly expressed in a succinct form, they are plainly exercises which should not be included in books designed for school use.

We would also suggest that the writers of arithmetic textbooks should bear in mind the definite stage in education which is nowadays expected to be reached by the age of 11+. Formerly each 'standard' in the school had a fixed quantum of work, and it was reasonably certain that a child who passed a particular standard was familiar with certain rules. The modern practice is not only to include in each year's work a certain number of rules for formal treatment in some kind of sequence, but also at each stage to prepare the ground for rules that will come later. The minimum amount that a child should know by the age of 11+ has been set out in more or less general terms in the Board's Handbook of Suggestions for Teachers (page 174, Section 2), and it seems desirable that arithmetic textbooks for junior schools and departments should aim chiefly at dealing, simply but thoroughly, with this amount of groundwork in a fairly logical sequence. Interest might be aroused by including a sufficient number of concrete illustrations; and even at this stage practical applications might be introduced, where appropriate, but the premature introduction of difficult notions and of involved phraseology in the problems should be avoided.

(b) Elementary mathematics

There was a great difference of opinion among our witnesses on the question whether separate books should be used for each branch of elementary mathematics (i.e. arithmetic, algebra, geometry, trigonometry) or whether one book, or series of books, should be provided in which all these branches were combined in one general scheme of instruction. Those who preferred the former type of book found a sufficiently wide range of works available which were suitable in most respects, and in fact such books are generally in use in grammar schools. Those who preferred the latter type experienced much difficulty in meeting their requirements. Several of the existing books which professed to deal with elementary mathematics were, they stated, in fact only composite textbooks treating the various branches as separate subjects. Whether separate or combined textbooks form the most appropriate type seems to us a matter to be settled by individual teachers in accordance with their own preferences, the circumstances of their schools and considerations of expense. It may well be that in large and highly organised modern schools, containing pupils of widely varying ages and devoting much time to mathematics, separate textbooks are advantageous, but we are disposed to think that in schools where the mathematical bias is less pronounced, or the age range less wide, e.g. in certain senior classes and the upper parts of ordinary elementary schools, the combined type of book may often possess advantages of its own. We also think that as the textbooks will often be used by pupils working to a considerable extent by themselves, sufficient preliminary explanation of new rules and processes should be included to enable the scholar to master them without necessarily calling on the teacher.

(c) Bookkeeping and commercial subjects

It would appear that most of the existing textbooks on the elements of commerce and bookkeeping that are available for use in modern schools and senior classes have been written ostensibly for evening classes, and in many cases for students considerably above the age of 14 or 15.

We were informed that the available books on the elements of commerce were often useful as offering suggestions to teachers, but that few of them could be described as good class books.

Such books, as a rule, dealt with each department of the commercial world, e.g. import trade, wholesale trade and retail trade, as separate subjects, whereas some teachers felt that with young people the best line of approach was to take a transaction with one specific article and trace it through the various stages. Moreover, the books were often deficient in practical illustrations and applications, and the arithmetical calculations were insufficiently stressed. On the other hand, such calculations as were given often involved the expenditure of too much time on mere computation. Again, much material was included that was easily learnt under office conditions and was unsuitable for pupils still at school. Many of the larger books on commerce were written for older students, and the subject matter was not always presented in an attractive form. On the whole there would seem to be a paucity of good works of reference on this subject for teachers; though a large number of books have been published dealing with office procedure, correspondence, indexing and the like. On educational grounds, it is open to doubt whether such books are required in schools, as much of the knowledge of the technique of office procedure is more easily acquired in the office itself.

We were informed that many of the existing manuals on bookkeeping suffer from the following defects:

(i) The principles of bookkeeping are obscured by the multiplicity of accounts and of subsidiary books, and by arithmetical detail.

(ii) The exercises are often too long and involved for young students and for formal lesson periods in day schools.

Our witnesses thought that there was room for a new book which would make the ledger the central point of early lessons, and which would begin with short series of very simple transactions.

NATURE STUDY AND ELEMENTARY SCIENCE

34. There was general agreement among our witnesses that, while there was room in elementary schools for good books on the rudiments of science, very few such works were at present available. The books for young children dealing with nature study were apt to be dull, uninteresting and overloaded with detail. The assumption often made in them, that children like to have everything in story form or in the shape of a dialogue between an inquiring nephew and an omniscient uncle, was not well founded.

The available evidence indicates that there are very few textbooks on science in use in elementary schools, and that many of those published are unsuited to school conditions. The conditions obtaining within many of the schools demand unusual initiative on the part of teachers in improvising experiments which can be carried out with simple apparatus. It is understood that many textbooks endeavour to impose in miniature the academic standard of grammar schools and universities, or else go to the other extreme and tend to lose the scientific outlook by being too empirical. There should be a savour of discovery both about the demonstration lesson and the practical work carried out by the pupils. We agree with our witnesses in thinking that a good objective for such books on elementary science would be not the logical development of any one branch of science, but a selection from various sciences illustrating the outlook of the scientist, his methods of discovery, and the general effect of such investigations upon human affairs. Although laboratory cards have their use in saving the time of the teacher when he is engaged with a large class making use of miscellaneous apparatus, they cannot serve as an efficient substitute for a textbook. Explanations should not be left solely to the oral work of the teacher, but should also be studied in the printed text. Otherwise, the vocabulary of the pupil tends to become restricted, and the powers of both oral and written expression, which follow from the study of a well written book, remain undeveloped. Such a textbook might usefully contain short suggestive lists of experiments, which many children could carry out at home, and which might be related to common hobbies. We regard it as important that in books on science intended for use in public elementary schools the different scientific principles should be more freely illustrated from examples and applications that have come, or are likely to come, within the pupil's range of experience. It is also of primary concern that both teaching and textbooks in general elementary science should be related as closely as possible to the fundamental processes of handicraft, housecraft and school gardening.

Furthermore, in addition to books dealing with the ordinary school course in science, there should be in the libraries, especially for the senior schools and divisions, well written accounts of scientific discovery and invention, which might often be given in the form of biographies placed in proper historical perspective.

The science textbook intended for modern schools and advanced classes providing a general education, though more advanced in character, should be of the type already indicated as suitable for older pupils, except where a marked industrial or agricultural bias has been introduced in the latter part of the course. Books specifically designed to introduce the necessary technical vocabulary and lines of thought might then with advantage be brought into use.

MUSIC

35. There was general agreement that the supply of suitable books of songs and musical games for infants and for young children between the ages of 8 and 10 was rather scanty and frequently of poor quality. For instance, inferior modern songs taken from newspapers and periodicals, and very mediocre action songs, are still found in use in some infants' schools and departments. On the other hand, we were informed that for older children there is an abundant supply of song books with words, books of exercises in sight reading, and copies of sheet music by good composers. The main difficulty is financial, as some musical material is rather expensive. Several witnesses pointed out that music publishers did not advertise their productions to any great extent among teachers. The consequence was that many teachers were very imperfectly informed regarding the available supply of good music suitable not only for the purpose of teaching singing, but also for marching and dancing, and for incidental use in connexion with school plays, pageants and entertainments. We think, therefore, that musical publishers would be well advised to take steps, in collaboration with authorities, to make their publications better known among teachers.

It would seem that, whereas in the teaching of most other subjects, each pupil in the class is provided with a separate book, class books of exercises in sight reading are only provided in most schools, if at all, in the music lessons for the older children.

Separate books of exercises in sight reading are desirable for pupils of about 9 years of age and upwards, but pupils below that age should be taught from the blackboard. Our witnesses were of opinion that the lack of books largely accounted for the fact that the level of proficiency in sight reading was much lower in many schools than it ought to be, and that the failure to provide separate class books in music was chiefly due to the cost of such books. Yet for adequate musical teaching they are indispensable. We accordingly recommend that separate class books of exercises in sight reading should be provided for each pupil from about the age of 9 onwards.

Some of our witnesses attached importance to the provision of small cheap manuscript books with staves for taking notes on music, in which the children from quite an early age could learn to make notes, rests, clefs, etc., and, as soon as possible, to write simple tunes.

In regard to song books, several witnesses suggested that, if one set each of two good song books with words and music could be requisitioned for a school, one set might be shared between the children in the lower classes and the other set used by the older pupils. In this way a large number of songs might be learnt at a minimum of expense. It was pointed out that editions of songs with words only were not of much value, with the exception of editions of traditional songs, most of which were quickly learnt by ear.

There was general agreement that there was no lack of good reference books on music for teachers, many of which were suitable for inclusion in the school library.

Several witnesses pointed out that in the book rooms maintained by some authorities the music section is often a mere untidy repository for scores, good, bad and indifferent. Even in those book rooms where the scores and books on music have been carefully selected and systematically arranged, it often happens that no piano is provided, so that teachers visiting the sample room are unable to try over the various songs, etc.

We suggest that local book list and book room committees, (15) in preparing lists of books suitable for use in public elementary schools, should devote special attention to the arrangement and classification of musical scores and books on music, and that care should be taken to display the collection of works on music in the book room in an orderly and attractive manner. We think too that the authority should, where possible, provide a piano in the book room or in some adjacent room, so that teachers might be able to try over songs before making a final selection. Failing this, teachers might be allowed to have the loan of a few books or separate copies of school songs so that they could try them over at home.

DRAWING

36. We agree with most of our witnesses in holding that, where the services of a specialist teacher of drawing are available, no book is required, so long as the syllabus is confined to the simpler aspects of the subject. We think, however, that a suitably illustrated book on the principles and practice of drawing, relating it to the curriculum as a whole, and showing in particular its close connections with handicraft, would be of considerable assistance to the non-specialist teacher. We understand from our witnesses that there is at present no book which adequately fulfils this purpose, though there are several works of reference available, which provide information on the technical difficulties that arise in the handling of different media.

There appears to be a place for books both for teachers and for the older pupils dealing with the teaching of design and its application to artistic crafts. A simple and concise work illustrating the processes involved in the various artistic crafts would in our view be a valuable addition to the school library.

We would suggest that in addition to at least one good book on design in its application to artistic crafts, schools and departments for older pupils should be supplied with a few portfolios of carefully chosen reproductions of simple designs, sketches and pictures by accomplished artists. These can now be obtained at a small cost through various associations. With the help of such reproductions the teacher would be able to interpret to the children the aims of their own drawings and designs done in association with craft work, and so to connect the necessary elementary exercises of the classroom with the world of art and of outside experience. We also consider it most important that good examples of applied design should be available in elementary schools where, as is often the case, drawing and handwork (including needlework and embroidery) are carefully correlated.

PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION

37. There seemed to be general agreement among our witnesses that there is still a wide field for good books bearing on the various branches of practical instruction. The allowance for school books in general has been so small (16) that teachers frequently have been able or willing to requisition works only for the principal subjects in the curriculum, and the specialist handbooks and books of reference in practical subjects have fared badly in the competition. A small collection of special books bearing on the branches of practical instruction given should form an integral part of the normal equipment of centres for handwork or housecraft, and in any case provision should be made in the school libraries for books both for teachers and pupils bearing on the subjects of practical instruction taken in the school. The more expensive works might be provided in cooperation with the urban and county libraries. (17) It is hardly necessary to say that in modern schools, and pre-eminently in those with a practical bias, special provision should be made for the supply of books directly and indirectly connected with these subjects.

We are glad to note in the statistics furnished to us by the Publishers' Association of Great Britain and Ireland which are printed in Appendix VI, that increasing attention is being devoted to the production of books on practical subjects. Besides the provision of special books dealing with the practical processes of each craft, the books coordinating handwork and needlework with art, and gardening with nature study, are, if possible, of even greater educational importance.

(a) Handwork

For teachers and for pupils who have mastered the rudiments of handwork books should be available containing good examples of design in craft work, e.g. the illustrated catalogues of the Victoria and Albert Museum (18) in woodwork and metalwork. Children who are well taught can often master the elements of the technique of a simple craft in less than a year. During the next year or more the time is devoted to the free making of objects, and for these designs are necessary. An intelligent child, if he were given one or more good books of reference should be able to take from them ideas for a piece of work. Taste in design should be cultivated by seeing good examples in art and craft. In this way a child might be trained to model his work on good traditional lines.

(b) Needlework

Only a few books designed for the use of the pupils themselves have been written, but we consider it desirable that the school library should contain at least a few volumes dealing with the various aspects of needlework. These books would be primarily for the use of the teacher, but the older girls should also become familiar with them before they leave school. Periodicals and magazines on needlecraft and embroidery afford a useful means of keeping the teachers in touch with modern developments.

We would suggest that at least one such periodical should be included in the school library. Most of the existing books on art and design are rather large and comparatively expensive. A few of these books might, however, be purchased for the school libraries of modern schools for girls, and of other schools where special attention is devoted to needlecraft.

(c) Housecraft

When housecraft was first included in the school curriculum, no suitable books were available for the use of pupils. Methods of teaching in the centres were based on the assumption that no help from books would be forthcoming, and girls accordingly spent an undue proportion of time in making notes, e.g. of recipes in cooking and of methods used in carrying out the different processes of the subjects included under the term housecraft. This traditional method of teaching still persists in a large majority of cases, in spite of the fact that good textbooks on cookery, laundry and housewifery can now be procured at a very reasonable cost, and would be a valuable aid to the instruction. We are strongly of opinion that girls should be trained, before they leave school, to follow printed directions in all household subjects.

The necessity in every housecraft centre for a supply of reference books of a wider range, suitable both for teachers and pupils, is emphasised in the Board's Handbook of Suggestions for Teachers (page 384). It is most desirable that some of these books should contain an adequate treatment of hygiene in its bearing on housecraft.

(d) Gardening

Our witnesses were of opinion that the school library, especially in rural areas, should contain a number of works of reference on gardening and allied topics for the use of teachers and children, and especially of books which indicate lines of observation and experiment, and aim at stimulating and arousing interest in the countryside and in living plants and animals. In such a library there ought to be included carefully selected books on plants, insects, birds and beasts of the countryside, familiar wild flowers, and simple plant experiments; books on soils; books on the culture of flowers, fruit, and vegetables; the sectional volumes of collected leaflets published by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries; and illustrated catalogues issued by nurserymen, seedsmen, and makers of garden appliances. A gardening periodical is also a useful addition to the library of a country school, and in modern schools and advanced classes in rural areas a few books on modern methods of agriculture might find a place in the collection.

PHYSICAL TRAINING

38. The various publications of the Board of Education on the subject of physical exercises and games for elementary schools, including the Memorandum on Physical Education, and the Supplement for older girls, containing descriptions of the exercises appropriate for pupils above the age of 14, appear to cover the ground adequately, at any rate for the present. There are many publications, periodical and other, which contain helpful articles on school games. For open-air activities other than games there is a useful pamphlet published by the Board entitled Notes on Camping.

HYGIENE

39. We do not think that a separate book on hygiene is required for pupils in elementary schools. The Board has recently issued a Handbook on Health Education intended for the use of teachers.

C: The supply of Welsh books suitable for use in public elementary schools in the bilingual districts of Wales

40. Sections 185 to 195 of the Report on Welsh in Education and Life, issued by the Departmental Committee on Welsh in September 1927, deal with the question of educational books in the Welsh Language.

The recommendations in the Report constitute a definite body of principles in organisation and method, and in the selection and provision of equipment for the teaching of the native language. Wales is divided in the Report into three types of district, and for each type a definite organisation of language teaching is suggested:

(a) Districts in which the population is predominantly Welsh speaking.
(b) Districts in which there is a fairly strong proportion of Welsh speakers, the rest of the population being of English descent or of Welsh descent but speaking English only.
(c) Districts where English greatly preponderates or where English is the sole language.

In districts (a) and (c) the Departmental Committee recommend that the mother tongue should be the sole medium of instruction in infants' schools and departments, and that no second language should be introduced at this stage. As the pupil passes through the senior departments of the elementary schools in the predominantly Welsh speaking districts (a), the Welsh language, though always retaining a prominent place in the curriculum, should be replaced gradually by English, which should be used increasingly as a medium of instruction. Where the policy of the local education authority for schools in the more anglicised areas in districts of type (b), and for schools in districts of type (c), is in favour of teaching Welsh, the time and attention given to English in upper classes should be progressively reduced in favour of Welsh.

In brief, it may be said that the general aim is to secure bilingualism in varying degrees in the elementary schools throughout Wales - with some qualification in respect of those in Radnorshire, South Pembrokeshire and Monmouthshire.

Many teachers complained of the lack of suitable Welsh books, not only for language teaching, but in other subjects - geography, history, nature study. Special attention was drawn to the serious deficiency of supplementary reading books for elementary schools.

The publishers drew attention to the economic difficulties of publishing Welsh books, due to restricted demand (19) and to the problem of supplying three types of book: (i) those with subject matter and vocabulary suitable for a child of the age of 7; (ii) those with subject matter suitable for a child of the age of 9 and upwards, but written in the vocabulary of a child of the age of 7 for use in bilingual areas; (iii) those with subject matter suitable for a child of the age of 11, but written in the vocabulary of a child of 7, for use in anglicised areas. At present, to quote the words of the Report, 'Where the matter is suitable, the language is often too difficult, and where the language is easy, the matter tends at times to be puerile and even babyish'. It was agreed that there had been a steady improvement in the number, character and printing of Welsh books since the [First World] War.

The Welsh Branches of the Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters in Secondary Schools considered that the form of Welsh books was, on the whole, unsatisfactory, and the range of subjects covered by them unduly limited, though there had been some improvement of late years. The Union of Welsh Teachers (Undeb Athrawon Cymreig) suggested that references to Wales in history and geography books written in English were often crude and inadequate, and in some cases incorrect. The Union urged that books should be published giving an adequate place to the geography, history, literature, mythology and folk tales of Wales.

Section 190 of the Report on Welsh in Education and Life states that some of the chief needs of senior departments of elementary schools and of secondary schools are:

'(a) Class Readers for all Standards of elementary schools;
(b) Literary readers for lower forms;
(c) Books on the 'direct method' for use in teaching Welsh to non-Welsh-speaking pupils;
(d) Books on Welsh composition;
(e) Books for general reading, of interest to boys and girls, especially romances, novels, and books of adventure. Translations of the best English and foreign books for boys and girls;
(f) More anthologies of prose and poetry suitable for various grades, and edited for schools, on the lines of Telyn y Dydd, Caniadau Cymru and Cywyddau Cymru, but with notes and vocabularies;
(g) More school editions of Welsh classics, with introductions and notes, particularly of those books which are at present out of print;
(h) Biographies of eminent Welshmen and Welshwomen, suitable for schools;
(i) Books on hygiene, physical culture and domestic science.'

In a later section, the Report draws attention to an excellent monthly publication called Cymru'r Plant (The Children's Welsh Magazine), with which is issued an illustrated supplement for very young children. The Report says, 'This is a step in the right direction, and we recommend that reading books of this type be provided for infant classes'.

The suggestions about Welsh school books made to us by our witnesses and by the various organisations of elementary and secondary teachers in Wales were, on the whole, of the same tenor as those made in the Report on Welsh in Education and Life.

The principal recommendations in the Report, which bear directly on the subject of our present Reference, are as follows:

(i) 'That the University Press Board act as an advisory publication board to guide publishers and to encourage authors in the publication and production of Welsh books for children' (Section 195, and recommendation 15 of the Report).

(ii) 'That each authority have a complete, up-to-date, and carefully graded specimen library of Welsh textbooks, reading books, and apparatus, available for inspection by teachers or parents, and that teachers be kept constantly informed of recent additions' (Section 114, and recommendation 38 of the Report).

(iii) 'That authorities pay very much greater attention to the question of school libraries in general, and particularly to the provision of Welsh books in school libraries' (Sections 193 and 369, and recommendation 40 of the Report).

(iv) 'That a supplementary allowance be made by each authority for the provision of books and equipment for the teaching of Welsh'. (Sections 114 and 193, and recommendation 39 of the Report).

We cordially support the general principles for the improvement of the supply and quality of Welsh school books put forward in the Report. The Report will doubtless stimulate the interest of Welsh schools in the study of the native language. This should produce an increased demand for Welsh books; and publishers will be encouraged to adopt more adequate, and extensive schemes. We desire, especially, to record our opinion that the existence of the bilingual problem in public elementary schools in Wales warrants the provision by Welsh education authorities of more generous grants for books for public elementary schools than have hitherto been customary.

Footnotes

(1) See Chapter 3 passim and the present Chapter, Sections 24 to 40 passim.

(2) Report on the influence of school books upon eyesight London, Offices of the British Association, Burlington House (1913). Cf. also RL Pyke The Legibility of Print (1926), Medical Research Council Special Report series. No. 110.

(3) See this chapter section 28.

(4) Descriptive price lists of illustrated guides, catalogues, photogravures and picture postcards with letterpress, published by the national museums, art galleries, and other similar institutions may as a rule, be obtained by writing to the director, curator or secretary of the institution in question. The full postal addresses of some of the more important of these institutions are as follows:

The British Museum: The Director, British Museum, London WC1
The British Museum (Natural History): The Director, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Road, London SW7.
The National Museum of Wales: The Director, National Museum of Wales, Cardiff.
The National Library of Wales: The Librarian, National Library of Wales, Aberystwyth.
The Victoria and Albert Museum*: The Director, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London SW7.
The Science Museum*: The Director, Science Museum, South Kensington, London SW7.
The Royal Botanic Gardens*: The Curator, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Surrey.
The Public Record Office Museum: The Secretary, The Public Record Office, Chancery Lane, London WC2.
The Imperial Institute: The Secretary, Imperial Institute, South Kensington, London SW7.
The Museum of Practical Geology: The Curator, Museum of Practical Geology, Jermyn Street, London SW1.
The London Museum: The Secretary, The London Museum, Lancaster House, St James's, London SW1.
The National Gallery: The Director, National Gallery, Trafalgar Square, London, WC2.
The National Portrait Gallery: The Secretary, National Portrait Gallery, St Martin's Place, Charing Cross, London WC2.
The Tate Gallery: The Director, National Gallery, Millbank, London SW1.
The Wallace Collection: The Secretary, Wallace Collection, Hertford House, Manchester Square, London W1.

A price list of the illustrated publications on the Antiquities of Britain (Inventories of the Royal Commissions on the Ancient Monuments of England, Scotland and Wales) may be obtained from HM Stationery Office, Adastral House, Kingsway, London WC2. These publications are comparatively expensive, but some of them might be suitable for inclusion in school libraries, particularly for modern schools.

It should also be mentioned that a number of municipal and other local museums, art galleries and similar institutions throughout England and Wales have published useful illustrated guides, catalogues and series of picture postcards with letterpress.

(*Price lists and descriptive literature respecting the illustrated publications of the Victoria and Albert Museum, the Science Museum and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, may also be obtained direct from HM Stationery Office, at the following addresses:
Adastral House, Kingsway, London WC2.
York Street, Manchester.
1 St Andrew's Crescent, Cardiff.)

(5) Throughout this Report we have used the terms 'grammar school' and 'modern school' in the sense in which we recommended in our Report on the Education of the Adolescent that they should be used, namely:
(i) That schools of the 'secondary' type most commonly existing today (generally called 'secondary schools' which at present pursue in the main a predominantly literary or scientific curriculum, should be known as grammar schools.
(ii) That schools of the type of the existing selective central schools, which give at least a four years' course from the age of 11+, with a 'realistic' or practical trend in the last two years, should be known as modern schools.
(iii) That schools of the type of the present non-selective central schools, with a curriculum on the same general lines as in (ii), and with due provision for differentiation between pupils of different capacities, should also be known as modern schools. Report on the Education of the Adolescent (1926), sections 99 and 101.

(6) We do not here express any opinion as to whether a modern foreign language should or should not be included in the curriculum of the types of school in question.

(7) See The Teaching of English in England being the Report of the Departmental Committee appointed by the President of the Board of Education to inquire into the position of English in the Educational System of England: 1921, page 341.

(8) See footnote 4 above.

(9) The Consultative Committee's Report on the Education of the Adolescent (1926), Chapter 12, section on History.

(10) cf. Report on the Education of the Adolescent (1926), Chapter 12, section on Geography.

(11) It is understood that the Empire Marketing Board has made arrangements for the free distribution to schools of reproductions of selected posters. A list of the posters available under this scheme can be obtained on application to the Secretary, Empire Marketing Board, 2 Queen Anne's Gate Buildings, SW1.

(12) Full particulars respecting these maps can be obtained from the Director General, Ordnance Survey Office, Southampton.

(13) That is, the books which contain grammar and exercises in translation and composition.

(14) Report on the Education of the Adolescent (1926), Chapter 12, section on A modern foreign language.

(15) See Chapter 5, Section 68, and Chapter 7, Recommendation No. 42.

(16) See Chapter 3, Section 49.

(17) See Chapter 4 passim.

(18) See footnote 4 above.

(19) i.e. on account of (a) the general practice of circulating Welsh reading books from county libraries for use as supplementary 'readers' in schools instead of buying such books directly for the schools, and (b) the tendency to purchase three or four copies of a book instead of a number sufficient for a whole class.