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Hadow (1926) Notes on the text
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The Hadow Report (1926)
The Education of the Adolescent London: HM Stationery Office
Appendix II
NOTES ON EDUCATIONAL NOMENCLATURE A. Terms which have some statutory authority, having been partially defined or employed in Acts of Parliament which are still in operation: (1) Elementary education, elementary school and public elementary school.
B. Terms which now or in the past have been defined for administrative purposes by the Board of Education or by the Department of Science and Art (up to 1900): (1) Higher elementary school.
C. Terms of art used by the Board of Education, the Charity Commission (up to 1900), local education authorities, Governors of Endowed Schools, teachers, and other persons interested in education: (1) Primary school and primary education.
A. Terms which have some statutory authority, having been partially defined or at any rate employed in Acts of Parliament which are still in operation. (1) ELEMENTARY EDUCATION, ELEMENTARY SCHOOL AND PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOL The Elementary Education Act 1870, defined 'elementary school' but not 'elementary education'. That statute apparently assumed that 'elementary education' was an expression the meaning of which was well understood, inasmuch as it embodied a reference thereto in its definition of an elementary school in Section 3, which runs as follows: 'The term 'Elementary School' means a school or department of a school at which elementary education is the principal part of the education there given, and does not include any school or department of a school at which the ordinary payments in respect of the instruction from each scholar exceed nine-pence a week.'The expression 'elementary school' is seldom used in the Education Act 1870, except in association with the word 'public'. The expression 'public elementary school' was defined in Section 7 of the Education Act 1870, re-enacted in Section 27(1) of the Education Act 1921, which runs as follows: 'Every elementary school which is conducted in accordance with the following regulations shall be a public elementary school within the meaning of this Act; and every public elementary school shall be conducted in accordance with the following regulations (a copy of which regulations shall be conspicuously put up in every such school); namely:Section 2 of the Education Act 1918, as re-enacted in Section 20 of the Education Act 1921, made it clear - if it was not clear before - that 'education other than elementary' could be given in public elementary schools. (2) CENTRAL SCHOOL OR CLASS Central schools (1) and central or special classes which are by statute public elementary schools, forming an integral part of the system of public elementary education, are described in Section 20 of the Education Act 1921 (which repeats Section 2(1)(a) of the Education Act 1918) as follows: 'It shall be the duty of a Local Education Authority so to exercise their powers under this Part as to make, or otherwise to secure, adequate and suitable provision by means of Central Schools, Central or special classes, or otherwise -In some of the Board's official forms these central schools are described as 'Central Elementary Schools'. It would appear from Section 20 of the Education Act 1921 that the legislature desired to give local education authorities extensive discretion in the development of these various forms of advanced and practical instruction, and the Board has accordingly given local education authorities very wide scope in tills matter. (2) The result is that the expression 'central school' or 'central elementary school' has a rather vague connotation. It may mean selective central schools, such as those in London and Manchester, which admit only children drawn from contributory public elementary schools on the result of a Junior Scholarship Examination or other selective admission test, or schools such as those in many rural and urban areas throughout England and Wales which take all or most of the pupils over 11 years of age from several contributory public elementary schools. (3) HIGHER EDUCATION The expression 'higher education' was used as the heading of Part II of the Education Act 1902. The subtitle of Section 2 of that Act is 'Power to Aid Higher Education'. In Section 2(1) higher education is described as 'education other than elementary'. (3) The phrase 'higher education' appears only in the text of Sections 2(2) and 22(2) of that Act. The Act itself however refers to 'education other than elementary', but in the Education Act of 1921 the phrase 'higher education' defined in Section 170(3) as meaning 'education other than elementary' is used as the heading of Part VI, and in Section 70 of the Act. Section 170(3) of the Act states that the expression 'higher education' means education other than elementary education. This definition should be read in connection with Section 71 of the Act, which runs as follows: ' The power of a local education authority to supply or aid the supply of higher education under this Act includes:There is no statutory definition of 'elementary education' and in consequence the statutory definition of 'higher education' in Section 170(3) of the Education Act 1921 is merely negative. The fact is, however, that this definition does not claim to be a definition of what constitutes 'higher education' or 'elementary education'. It is a strictly statutory definition designed for a particular purpose, and not a dictionary definition. The purpose which it fulfils nearly but not quite completely is to show what an authority for 'higher education' as distinguished from an authority for 'elementary education' only may do. A dictionary definition would have been misleading, since it is quite certain that an authority for 'elementary education' can give much education which could not properly be described as 'elementary' within the meaning assigned to that word in any dictionary. (4) SECONDARY SCHOOL AND SECONDARY EDUCATION The expression 'secondary school' was borrowed from the French 'ecole secondaire', which was used apparently for the first time in the Rapport et projet de decret sur l'organisation generale de l'instruction publique, submitted to the Legislative Assembly by Condorcet in April 1792. His proposal, which never became law, provided for a fivefold classification of education, 1) ecoles primaires for every village of 400 inhabitants, 2) ecoles secondaires to be provided by each Department, 3) Institutes which correspond to what are now called Lycees and Colleges. It will thus be seen that the term as originally used by Condorcet was intended to describe what would now be called higher primary, or higher elementary Schools. (4) The expression was first employed to describe schools which would now be regarded as 'Secondary' in Title 3, articles 6 and following of the Education Law (5) passed under the Consulate in 1802. RL Edgworth, who was in touch with the contemporary French educationalists, uses the expression 'secondary school' in his Essays on Professional Education (1812). (6) The phrase 'secondary education' is used by Dr Thomas Arnold in letters which he wrote to the Sheffield Courant in 1831. (7) It did not, however, come into general use until the fifties and sixties of the last century, when it was frequently employed by Matthew Arnold and other writers. (8) The expression is employed in the Reports of several Royal Commissions on Education, e.g. the Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission (1868) and the Final Report of the Commissioners appointed to inquire into the Elementary Education Acts England and Wales, 1888. It was first used officially in the Commission dated 2 March 1894, constituting the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, and was employed again in Section 3 of the Board of Education Act 1899, incorporated in Section 134(1) of the Education Act 1921, which runs as follows: 'Inspection of Secondary Schools, etc.No attempt, however, was made to give a statutory definition of secondary education. (9) The expression 'secondary school' is used in Section 18(1) of the Education Act 1918, incorporated in Section 80(2) of the Education Act 1921, which runs as follows: 'A Local Education Authority for Higher Education with respect to children and young persons attending -The Board of Education has issued annually since 1902-3 Regulations for Secondary Schools. In Paragraph III of the Prefatory Memorandum to those Regulations for 1904-5, the Board pointed out that at that time parliament in recent legislation had refrained from employing the term 'secondary' at all. The Board itself did not consider that any precise definition of the term 'secondary education' was immediately practicable, but a definition of the term 'secondary school' had become indispensable in order to give to secondary schools a definite place in the wide and vague scheme of education other than elementary with the provision of which local authorities had been charged in Part II of the Education Act 1902. In paragraph V of the Memorandum, the Board stated that for the purpose of the Secondary School Regulations the term 'secondary school' would be held to include any day or boarding school which offered to each of the scholars, up to and beyond the age of 16, a general education, physical, mental and moral, given through a complete graded course of instruction of wider scope and more advanced degree than that given in the elementary schools. In Article 1 of successive issues of the Regulations for Secondary Schools (England) up to 1925, it was stated that in order to be recognised as a secondary school within the meaning of those Regulations, 'a school must offer to each of its pupils a progressive course of general education as defined in Chapter II below (with the requisite organisation, curriculum, teaching staff, and equipment) of a kind and amount suitable for pupils of an age range at least as wide as from 12 to 17.' The expression 'public secondary school' has been regularly employed in the schemes made by the Board during the last 20 years for endowed secondary schools under the Charitable Trusts Acts and the Endowed Schools Acts (except in schemes for the municipalisation of such schools). (5) GRAMMAR SCHOOL The term grammar school, which had been in common use since the 14th century, (10) was defined in trust deeds and school statutes of the 16th and 17th century as meaning a school in which Latin, or Greek and Latin, and occasionally Hebrew were taught. Dr Johnson's Dictionary defined grammar school as a school in which the learned languages are grammatically taught, and Lord Eldon by his famous judgement in the case of Leeds Grammar School, 1805, (11) gave this definition legal validity from 1805 to the passing of the Grammar School Act 1840. Section 25 of the Act provides that the words 'grammar school' shall mean and include all endowed schools, whether of royal or other foundation, founded, endowed or maintained for the purpose of teaching Latin or Greek, or either of such languages, whether Latin or Greek shall be expressly described, or shall be described by the word 'grammar' or any other form of expression which is or may be construed as intending Greek or Latin, whether such instruction be limited exclusively to one of these languages or extended to both or to any other branch or branches of Literature or Science in addition to them, or either of them, and that the words 'grammar school' shall not include schools not endowed, but shall mean and include all endowed schools which may be 'Grammar Schools' by reputation. In schemes for endowed grammar schools made by the Board during the last twenty years a common-form clause has been regularly inserted to the effect that the school of the foundation shall be conducted as a 'public secondary school'. The expression 'grammar school' is sometimes applied at present to secondary schools which are almost wholly maintained by the local education authority. (6) INTERMEDIATE SCHOOL The term 'intermediate school' has a quasi-statutory basis in Wales, as a school providing 'intermediate education', (12) which is defined in Section 17 of the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889, as follows: 'The expression Intermediate Education means a course of education which does not consist chiefly of elementary instruction in reading, writing and arithmetic, but which includes instruction in Latin, Greek, Welsh and English language and Literature, Modern Languages, Mathematics, Natural and Applied Sciences, or in some of such studies and generally in the higher branches of knowledge.'In Wales an intermediate school is a school governed by a scheme under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889, and in other respects it is not distinguishable from an ordinary secondary school. There are, however, secondary schools in Wales which are not governed by schemes under that Act, and in the last two decades there has been a tendency to drop the title 'intermediate school' as applied to schools conducted under the Act, and to substitute the term 'county school'. The broad fact remains, however, that in Wales 'intermediate school' means a secondary school, which is subject to special certain legal provisions. In the last few years some local education authorities in England have been applying the term 'intermediate school' to some of their central elementary schools supplying 'advanced instruction' as described in Section 20 of the Education Act 1921 (i.e. Section 2(i)(a)(ii) of the Education Act 1918). (7) CONTINUATION SCHOOL The expression 'continuation school' is employed in Sections 13, 75, 76, 77 and 80 of the Education Act 1921, re-enacting the corresponding Sections in the Education Act 1918. Section 75, subsection (1) of the Education Act 1921, runs as follows: 'It shall be the duty of the Local Education Authority for Higher Education, either separately or in cooperation with other local education authorities, to establish and maintain, or secure the establishment and maintenance under their control and direction of a sufficient supply of Continuation Schools in which suitable courses of study, instruction and physical training are provided without payment of fees for all young persons resident in their area who are under this Act under an obligation to attend such schools.'It appears from Section 76 that the statutory continuation school was intended in normal circumstances to be a day continuation school for young persons between the ages of 14 and 18, as Section 76(2) expressly provides that such continuation schools are not normally to be held between the hours of 7 in the evening and 8 in the morning. Section 170(4) of the Act defines 'young person' as a person under eighteen years of age who is no longer a child. The ordinary connotation of the term 'continuation school' before the passing of the Education Act 1918 had varied very considerably. On 18 May 1893 the Committee of Privy Council on Education had established a Code of Regulations for evening continuation schools which were, of course, part-time schools. On the other hand, in the Report of the Consultative Committee on Higher Elementary Schools, published in 1906, the expression 'day continuation school' on the analogy of 'evening continuation school' is suggested as an alternative name for 'higher elementary school'. Nothing came of this suggestion, but had the term been employed in this sense it would have meant full-time schools, unlike the day continuation schools contemplated by Sections 75 to 79 of the Education Act 1921, which were intended to be part-time schools for young persons already in employment. B. Terms which are now, or in the past have been, defined for administrative purposes by the Board of Education, or by the former Department of Science and Art. (1) HIGHER ELEMENTARY SCHOOL The phrase 'higher elementary school' was sometimes popularly used to describe the 'higher grade' schools established by some of the school boards between 1871 and 1900. The expression, which seems to have been modelled on the French ecole primaire superieure, (13) was first used as an official term in the Board's Minute of 6 April 1900, which provided for a special class of public elementary schools to be known as higher elementary schools, receiving grant on certain conditions set out in the Code for 1901. Only a few schools were recognised under these Regulations, which laid stress on a predominantly scientific curriculum. In Chapter VI of the Code for 1905, the Board modified extensively its earlier Regulations for Higher Elementary Schools. This chapter continued to appear in successive issues of the Code up to 1918, but the number of schools recognised under it was never large. In view of Section 2 of the Education Act 1918, the Board withdrew the Regulations for Higher Elementary Schools in 1919 and so the term ceased to have any official significance, though it is still employed by some local education authorities to describe schools formerly recognised officially as higher elementary schools under the Code up to 1918. (2) JUNIOR TECHNICAL SCHOOL This term is used to describe day schools recognised under the regulations for junior technical schools, first drawn up in 1913 and included in the Board's general Regulations for Technical Schools, etc, providing courses for boys and girls during the two or three years after leaving public elementary schools in which a continued general education is combined with definite preparation for some industrial employment. These schools were definitely not intended to provide courses furnishing a preparation for the professions, the universities, or higher full-time technical work, or again for commercial life; they were meant to prepare their pupils either for artisan or other industrial occupations or for domestic employment. (14) Under the Regulations in force up to 1925, the minimum admission age is 13+ and the courses ordinarily last two or three years. The courses must be planned as a preparation for employment on completion of the course, and not as a preparation for further full-time instruction. The schools hitherto recognised under these Regulations fall into two classes: (a) those in which the practical work is intended to develop a substantial measure of personal craftsmanship; (most schools of this type are popularly known as 'trade schools'), (15) (b) those in which practical work is less definitely directed to the attainment of manual skill. (3) SCHOOL OF SCIENCE OR ORGANISED SCIENCE SCHOOL The Science and Art Department, with a view to encouraging the establishment of schools giving methodical and systematic instruction in science, offered attendance grants in 1872 to such schools and institutions as adopted one or other of the special courses formulated in the Science and Art Directory. These organised science schools as they were called, increased steadily till 1894, when they numbered 112. In order to check the natural tendency for the curriculum of these schools to become unduly developed on the scientific side, the rules in the Science and Art Directory for 1894 required that the timetables of such schools should provide 'for instruction in those literary subjects which were essential for a good general education'. (16) In 1895 both the curriculum and the method of payment in schools of science were modified. New special courses of instruction were laid down, and manual work and instruction in literary and commercial subjects became an integral part of the regular work of the school of science, to which a certain time had to be devoted, and on which the grants in part depended. There were 187 of these schools of science in 1900. (17) In the Regulations for Secondary Day Schools for 1902-3 and 1903-4, issued by the then newly established Board of Education, the schools of science were classed as 'secondary day schools (Division A)', (18) and the grammar schools were described as 'secondary day schools (Division B)'. The distinction between Division A and Division B schools disappeared in the Regulations for Secondary Schools for 1904-5, which are the archetype of those in operation at the present time. It will thus be seen that the existing Regulations for Secondary Schools have grown up round the old provisions of the Science and Art Directory. The sporadic science classes which had been formed were gradually built up into schools of science, and after 1901 these schools of science were expanded into schools of the so-called 'Division A' type. (4) PREPARATORY SCHOOL (19) This expression is generally understood as meaning a boarding school or a day school which prepares boys for entrance to the public [independent] schools and the navy, and girls for admission to the larger endowed and proprietary schools for girls. The first preparatory school for boys was founded in 1837. (20) They are for the most part private schools, and the expression 'private school' is sometimes used as equivalent to 'preparatory school' in contradistinction to public school. From 1917 to 1925 the Board of Education defined preparatory school in Chapter IX of their Regulations for Secondary Schools as 'A school which provides an education of the same kind and quality as that contemplated by Article 1 (of the Regulations), for pupils of an age range at least as wide as from 9 to 13, and from which pupils normally proceed to continue their education at some Secondary School or other similar institution'. (21) C. Terms of Art used by the Board of Education, the Charity Commission (up to 1900), the local education authorities, Governors of Endowed Schools, teachers and other persons interested in education. (1) PRIMARY SCHOOL AND PRIMARY EDUCATION The term 'primary school' has never had any statutory authority in England and was borrowed directly by writers on education from the French 'ecole primaire', an expression which was first used in the schemes of national education presented to the Constituent Assembly by Talleyrand-Perigord in September 1791 (22) and to the Legislative Assembly by Condorcet in April 1792. (23) The phrase first became statutory in France in 1802, when it was used in the education law of that year to describe the lowest grade of schools in contradistinction to the ecoles secondaires. This term and the expression 'primary education' derived from it gradually came into use in England and are employed in the Reports of several of the Royal Commissions on Education, e.g. the Final Report of the Cross Commission (1888). (2) HIGHER GRADE SCHOOL 'Higher grade school' was a name which gradually came to be applied to certain schools established between 1871 and 1900 by some of the school boards, especially those in large towns such as Bradford, Sheffield, Birmingham and Huddersfield. Such schools aimed at continuing the education given in the ordinary elementary schools to children able to assimilate more advanced instruction. These schools often took the form of organised science classes or schools working under the regulations devised for such science schools by the Science and Art Department in 1872. That department provided an additional source for obtaining state aid, and further was able to make grants at a higher rate than the Education Department in Whitehall. As a result higher elementary education, so far as it was provided by these higher grade schools, tended to assume a predominantly scientific character, though this tendency was to some extent corrected by the Science and Art Department in its Directory, issued in 1894, which stated that in preparing the timetable 'provision should be made for instruction in those literary subjects which were essential for a good general education'. (24) In the case of Rex v. Cockerton, CA. (1901), 1 KB 726, it was decided that it was not 'within the powers of a (School) Board as a statutory corporation to provide science and art schools or classes (of the kind referred to in this case) either in the day schools or in evening continuation schools out of the school board rate or school fund'. The schools or classes referred to were schools or classes which provided education of the nature prescribed by the Directory of the Science and Art Department. Pending the coming into operation of the Education Act 1902, School Boards, which had in fact provided such schools and classes, were allowed to continue to do so by the Education Act 1901, on the terms therein prescribed. When the Board of Education, under the Minute of April 1900, issued special Regulations for Higher Elementary Schools, some of the higher grade schools were converted into higher elementary schools. Others, after the passing of the Education Act 1902, became secondary schools. The term 'higher grade' still survives in the local names of a few public elementary schools. The name was derived from the six (and after 1882 seven) standards or grades, which were described in successive Codes of the Education Department from 1861 to 1892. Other names given to such schools between 1871 and 1900 were 'higher board school', 'advanced elementary school', 'higher standard' or 'seventh standard school', 'higher elementary school', 'higher central school'. (3) HIGHER TOP This term was employed colloquially to describe the higher classes which developed at the top of some of the elementary schools. It was used unofficially in some parts of England during the period from 1900 to 1918, when the Regulations for Higher Elementary Schools were in operation, in order to describe post-primary classes, which were not working under those Regulations. Since 1918 many 'higher tops' have been organised in the elementary schools in Durham County. (25) (4) SENIOR SCHOOL The phrase 'senior school' is employed by some local education authorities as a term of art to describe schools for children between the ages of 11+ and 14+ who have not obtained free places for secondary schools, nor secured admission to a selective central elementary school. In current educational parlance 'senior school' is frequently used to describe the senior department of an ordinary public elementary school. (5) PREPARATORY DEPARTMENT Schemes for Endowed Schools for Boys and for Girls made by the Charity Commission, and after 1900 by the Board of Education, frequently provide that the governors may, if they think fit, maintain in the school a preparatory department or kindergarten for the education of children, whether boys or girls, under the age of 7 or 8 or 10 years. The age limit varies in different schemes. The term 'preparatory department' is not explicitly mentioned in the Board's Regulations for Secondary Schools, but was implicitly recognised up to 1925 in Article 1 of those Regulations, which stated that provision made for pupils below the age of 12 must be similarly suitable and in proper relation to the work done in the main portion of the school. (6) HIGH SCHOOL. In Scotland the term high school has been used since the 15th century to describe certain ancient endowed secondary schools e.g. the High Schools of Edinburgh (26) and Glasgow. In England the expression was occasionally used for boys' schools e.g. Thomas Hersley, Mayor of Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1526 and 1533, bequeathed certain property for the endowment of a 'Hye School'. The school in question, however, was generally known as the ancient Free Grammar School. More modern examples of the use of the name in England for boys' secondary schools are the Nottingham High School (27) and the Newcastle-under-Lyme High School. The term did not come into general use till after 1869, when, as a result of the movement for providing higher education for girls, which received a great impetus from the recommendations on the subject in the Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission (1868), numerous secondary schools for girls, known as High Schools (28) were established, especially in the large towns, partly by local organisations and partly by corporations such as the Girls' Public Day School Company founded in 1872. When by the Education Act 1902, counties and county boroughs were vested with powers to provide secondary schools, a number of these new county and municipal secondary schools for girls were named County High Schools. (7) MIDDLE SCHOOL The continental usage of this term varies very considerably. In some of the German States, e.g. Prussia, 'Mittelschule' means a school intermediate in type between the elementary school (Volkschule) and the secondary school (Hohere Schule). (29) In Czechoslovakia 'Stredna Skola', i.e. middle school, means a secondary school. In England the term appears to have first come into use about 1840 to describe a type of school intermediate between the ancient grammar schools, with their predominantly classical curriculum, and the elementary schools, which had been established in large numbers during the preceding decades by the National Society, the British and Foreign School Society and other organisations and individuals. For example, about 1845, the National Society established some superior 'middle' schools attached to their existing normal schools; e.g. a middle school was founded at York, attached to the training college, which included in its curriculum Latin and also subjects of practical value, such as mensuration. Such schools, which were often called middle-class schools, or trade schools, (30) were established in increasing numbers after the publication of the Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission (1868), which recommended that three grades of secondary schools were required: (a) First Grade Schools, with a leaving age of 18 or 19, closely associated with the universities, which would teach Greek as well as Latin; (b) Secondary Schools with a leaving age of 16 or 17, which would teach two modern languages, besides Latin; (c) Third Grade Schools, with a leaving age of 13 or 14, which would teach the elements of French and Latin. In order to facilitate the provision of such third grade schools, the Endowed Schools Commission (1869-1874), and later the Charity Commission, in which the powers of the former Commission were merged in 1874, sometimes included in their Schemes for Endowed Schools clauses authorising the governors to establish a middle, (30) sometimes called a modern or commercial or trade School, which should occupy an intermediate position between the ordinary primary schools and the ancient school of the foundation. The number of schools which are still termed middle schools, (31) is not large. Some local authorities established middle schools which were converted into municipal secondary schools after 1902. In the last few years, the expression 'middle school' has been brought into use in the areas of some education authorities, e.g. the West Riding of Yorkshire, as a name for central schools. (8) COMMERCIAL SCHOOL Many of the private schools established in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, more especially those in towns, were known as commercial schools or academies. The curriculum of the better schools of this type was quasi-secondary in character, including French, bookkeeping, and commercial arithmetic. About 1845 it was realised in some quarters that there was a need for a type of school intermediate between the grammar schools with their predominantly classical curriculum, and the primary schools which had been established in large numbers by the National Society, the British and Foreign Schools Society and other organisations. For example, a commercial school was established at Manchester by the Manchester Church Education Society in 1846, which provided a modern curriculum including French, German and Drawing. Such 'Commercial' or 'Middle' Schools fell within the category of Third Grade Schools with a leaving age of 14 or 15, described in the Report of the Schools Enquiry Commission (1868). The Schemes for Endowed Schools made by the Endowed Schools Commission (1869-1874), and subsequently by the Charity Commission, in which the former Commission was merged in 1874, sometimes authorised the governors of endowed schools to establish a 'commercial school' or 'middle school', which would provide a more modern and utilitarian curriculum than that of the ancient school of the foundation. (9) JUNIOR COMMERCIAL SCHOOL (OR COURSE) A few schools of this type are recognised under the Board's Regulations for Further Education, (32) but such schools, or lower commerce courses, though in a sense parallel to junior technical schools as they afford provision for continued general education, have been hitherto regarded as having a provisional rather than an established place in the public system of education, inasmuch as they can hardly be viewed as supplying an educational need which could not be substantially met, as the system of secondary schools and central schools and classes is fully developed, particularly as there is ample provision for part-time instruction in the technicalities of office work of various kinds in the evening school system in every large town. These schools, which were often described unofficially as 'junior commercial schools', are now in the Schedule to the Board's Regulations for Further Education 1926, included under the category of junior technical schools. (10) FULL-TIME DAY TECHNICAL CLASSES FOR JUNIOR PUPILS, HELD IN THE PREMISES OF TECHNICAL SCHOOLS AND TECHNICAL INSTITUTES In the Board's Regulations for Technical Schools for 1905-6, grants were offered in aid of organised courses of instruction designed for students devoting a large part of their time to studies in preparation for their life work. Among the arrangements fostered by those grants were full-time schools offering courses that could be completed about the age of 16, some industrial in outlook, some commercial, and some domestic. From 1913 onwards full-time courses for junior pupils having special reference to artisan occupations or to employment in domestic service were recognised as junior technical schools. The full-time schools in the other groups, which may be conveniently described as junior commercial schools and domestic economy schools, though these terms were not used in any official Regulations, were administered up to 1925 under the general power of the Board to recognise organised day courses 'adapted to the technical requirements of the students'. (Article 42 of the Regulations for Technical Schools, 1925). In the Schedule to the Board's Regulations for Further Education, 1926, the domestic economy schools are described as 'Junior Housewifery Schools' providing domestic and (at least for those under exemption age) general instruction in full-time courses extending at least to the exemption age. Short full-time courses, both vocational and domestic, are provided in technical day classes for pupils over the exemption age. (11) TRADE SCHOOL The more specialised junior technical schools, in which the practical work is intended to develop a substantial measure of personal craftsmanship, especially those in the London area, are popularly known as trade schools, e.g. the LCC Shoreditch Junior Technical School for Boys, specialising in cabinet-making and woodwork trades; the Holborn LCC Trade School for Girls, Queen's Square, WC1, specialising in dressmaking, millinery, photography. (12) FULL-TIME JUNIOR ART DEPARTMENTS, HELD IN SCHOOLS OF ART Provision was first made for the payment of grant to junior art departments, which at that time were called preparatory departments, in the Regulations for Technical Schools for 1913, but no junior art departments were in fact recognised until 1916. Up to the present, 29 such departments have been recognised. The courses in these departments conducted in the premises of Schools of Art (33) include as a rule at least 12 hours' general education per week. (13) PRIVATE SCHOOL 'Private school' is generally used as meaning a school, whether elementary or secondary in character, which is conducted for private profit. The expression has been in use since the seventeenth century and was employed in some of the Acts of the Restoration Parliament. (34) The term has not, however, been used by the legislature in recent education acts, though it is evident that private schools are included within the purview of Section 155 of the Education Act 1921 (re-enacting section 28 of the Education Act 1918), which provides for the collection of information (35) respecting 'schools or educational institutions not in receipt of grants from the Board of Education'. Footnotes (1) A 'Central School' was established by the London County Council Education Committee about 1905, and the London County Council Regulations for the existing Central Elementary Schools in London, which have been in operation since 1911, are headed 'Central and Higher Grade Schools' (LCC Elementary Schools Handbook, No. 2276, Chapter XV). The term 'Central' was probably used to emphasise the fact that such schools, though post-primary, were not being conducted under the Board's Regulations for Higher Elementary Schools which at that time (1911) were still in force. It seldom matters for any legal purpose whether a Public Elementary School is a Central School or not, but Section 30(5)(c) and Section 36(5) of the Education Act 1921, though they do not expressly mention Central Schools, are obviously designed to meet the case of these schools. (2) cf. Report of the Board of Education for the School Year 1924-5 (Cmd. 2695), p. 83: 'No attempt has been made by the Board to suggest, still less prescribe, the lines upon which courses of advanced instruction should be organised, and local education authorities have been free to develop the methods which they consider most suited to their local circumstances and needs.' (3) cf. Section 22(3) of the Act (4) Buisson, Nouveau Dictioniaire de Pedagogie et d'Instruction primaire (1911) s.vv. Condorcet and Assemblee Legislative. (5) See text of law in Buisson, op cit I. 371. (6) Essays on Professional Education (1812) p. 43. (7) T Arnold, Miscellaneous Works, p. 229. (8) The expression 'Secondary School' is used in a rather vague sense, (as meaning what the Schools Inquiry Commissioners of 1868 called 'Third grade Schools') in an official letter of the Education Department, dated 13 June 1856, explaining that the Education Grant was not applicable to 'schools for the Middle Classes'. 'The Lord President thinks that a system of secondary schools might with great advantage be added to the present system of primary schools, in all those localities where schools of the latter kind are sufficiently large, or sufficiently numerous to afford a supply of children who have mastered the common elements of instruction, and are prepared to proceed with more specific studies. Schools of this secondary kind are beginning to be established in different parts of the country under the name of Trade Schools, the instruction being generally directed towards the application of science to productive industry.' Minutes of the Committee of Council on Education, 1856-7, p. 42.
(9) The Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education (1895), Sections 38 to 40, discusses at some length what Secondary Education is, and concludes that secondary comprehends technical education. 'Secondary Education, therefore, as inclusive of technical, may be described as education conducted in view of the special life that has to be lived with the express purpose of forming a person fit to live it.' (Section 40, p. 136). This definition however was never generally accepted. (10) e.g. Early English Wills (1882) p. 133. 'For to fynde to gramer scole my cosyn, his son William' (will dated 1454). cf. the Latin document of 1329 about, six grammar schools 'scolae grammaticales' in Lincolnshire, quoted in AF Leach, Educational Charters, pp. 280-282. (11) Attorney-General v. Whitley 11 Vesey, 241. (12) The phrase 'intermediate education' is used, but not defined in the Intermediate Education (Ireland) Act 1878 (41 and 42 Vict. Ch. 66). (13) cf. Report on the French system of Higher Primary Schools by Mr RL Morant (afterwards Sir Robert Morant) in Special Reports on Educational Subjects, 1896-7, pp. 285-374 (C. - 8447). HM Stationery Office. (14) Report of Board of Education for 1912-13, pp. 135-136, and Report of Board of Education for 1913-14, p. 115. (15) In the fifties 'Trade School' meant a Middle, or Commercial School. Minutes of Committee of Council on Education, 1856-7, p. 42. (16) Directory of the Department of Science and Art, 1894, p. 33, Section 22. cf. Section LIX on p. 47 of the Directory for 1901-2. (17) Calendar, History and General Summary of the Regulations of the Department of Science and Art, 1900 (C. - 9429), p. XVII. (18) Regulations for Secondary Day Schools 1902-3 (Cd. 1102), pp. 7 and foll. and Regulations for Secondary Day Schools 1903-4 (Cd. 1668), pp. 4 and foll. (19) See Report of Schools Inquiry Commission (1868), pp. 88-92, which shows that 'preparatory school' was a well known term of art at that time, as meaning a school which prepared boys for entrance to the Public Schools. (20) The first Preparatory School was founded in 1837 by Lieut CR Maiden, RN. Board of Education Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Vol. 6 (Cd. 418). pp. 1-3. (21) cf. Report of the Board of Education for 1924-25 (Cmd. 2695), p. 98. (22) Buisson, Nouveau Dictionnaire de Pedagogie et d'Instruction primaire, s.v.v. Talleyrand-Perigord, Condorcet, Lavoisier, Assemblee Constituante, Assemblee Legislative. (23) Buisson, op cit s.v. Consulat. (24) See note on School of Science, B(3), and Directory for Science said Art Schools and Classes (1894), p. 33, Section 22. (25) Mr AJ Dawson, Director of Education for Durham County, published in 1917 a pamphlet entitled Higher Tops. (26) The High School of Edinburgh, founded in 1519, is described in 1531 as 'the hie schule' or 'the principal gramer schule'. Edinburgh Town Council Records, 19 March 1531, I. 38(a). (27) Up to 1868 the school was called Nottingham Grammar School. (28) Possibly copied from the high schools for girls in the United States, e.g. Boston High School, established in 1824. cf. Bishop Fraser's Report on the Common School System of USA, (1866) (Schools Enquiry Commission), pp. 19, 168 and 192. (29) cf. Appendix IV. (30) It is probable that at the time the term 'middle school' may also have connoted 'middle class school'. For example, the Report of the Schools Inquiry Commission (1868) frequently refers to 'middle-class' schools, and in the early seventies a number of such 'middle-class' schools were established, cf. Minutes of Committee of Council on Education, 1856-7, p. 42, in which an official letter of the Education Department explaining that the education grant was not applicable for 'schools for the middle class', is headed 'Middle Schools'. cf. also TD Acland, The new Oxford Examinations for the title of Associate in Arts (1858), pp. vii, ix, 7, 12 and passim. (31) e.g. Boys' Middle School, Tiverton. Whitgift Middle School, Croydon. (32) See No. 10. Note on Full-Time Day Technical Classes. (33) The Schools of Art (now called Art Schools) which date from about 1849, are described in the Schedule to the Board's Regulations for Further Education, 1926, as institutions giving instruction (for students over the exemption age) in 'drawing, artistic handicraft, and design (and in special circumstances literary and pedagogic subjects) in full-time or part-time courses planned for students who have already received at least elementary instruction in drawing'. (34) e.g. 14 Car. II, C. 4, Section 6: 'Every school master keeping any publique or private schoole'. (35) See the digest of Returns from Private Schools given on page 79 of the Report of the Board of Education for 1921-22. (Cmd. 1896). 
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