The teaching of religious knowledge, like that of English, cannot be confined to a separate period or number of periods. It will affect the teaching of other subjects, such as history and literature, and the wise teacher will be anxious, in the various departments of school activity, to bring home to the pupils, as far as their capacity allows, the fundamental truths of religion and their bearing on human life and thought.

[page 190]

We have not ventured to make any detailed suggestions with regard to the teaching of religious knowledge. We feel that, in a matter which touches such profound issues, and in a subject which, while it will be approached by all with reverence, will also be treated differently from school to school and from teacher to teacher, it is the part of wisdom to rely on the initiative and the particular interests of headmasters and headmistresses. We commend the subject earnestly to their attention; and we content ourselves by referring to two syllabuses which we think that all who are concerned with teaching will find of value. The first is the Cambridgeshire Syllabus of Religious Teaching for Schools (Cambridge University Press, second edition, 1926), which was drawn up by a Committee on which various denominations were represented. It gives a syllabus of a three years' course for children of 11 to 14 years of age (pp. 28-32), and it also contains suggestions for the teaching of boys and girls from the age of 14 to that of 16 (pp. 33-37). The introductory pages on the teaching of religion, and the notes at the end on religion and corporate life, and on hymns and prayers, are full of suggestion.

The second is the Syllabus of Religious Instruction published by the Education Department of the County Council of the West Riding of Yorkshire. It contains, in addition to a statement of General Principles, a detailed syllabus (Course C) for pupils from 11 to 14 or thereabouts (pp. 11-20). It also includes a list of passages for memorising, and valuable addenda on method, hymns and prayers, and story-telling as an art (pp. 22-26).

Any course in English designed for pupils in post-primary schools should be regarded as a continuation and development of previous work done up to the age of 11+. At the same time English should not be treated as an isolated subject confined to certain definite periods assigned to it in the timetable. In every branch of the curriculum pupils should be trained to express their ideas, either orally or in writing, in accurate and appropriate language. It will, therefore, be advisable to exercise a careful supervision over the use of English in every subject.

One of the chief aims of the course should be to secure clear and correct speech. To this end, definite training should be given in distinct articulation and the proper use of the organs

[page 191]

of speech. In schools where the services of an expert teacher are available, the elements of phonetics might well become a valuable introduction to the study not only of a foreign language but also of English.

The classification of speech sounds and the association of each with an appropriate symbol, the investigation of the use of those sounds in the pupils' own speech, and the use of the various organs of speech, illustrated by exercises for practising different sounds, might, if skilfully handled, afford a most interesting subject of study.

Good intelligible English should be the recognised language of the school. It is clearly of the first importance that the teacher himself should set an example in making use of good English. In oral instruction he should provide frequent occasions for natural conversation between himself and individual pupils. Opportunities should also be afforded for practice in continuous narrative. Some dramatic work associated with good literature may well be attempted, as is already done in many schools. In some schools opportunities may present themselves for developing an interest in local dialect and explaining its historical significance.

From the moment a child enters an Elementary school, he will have had continuous and progressive training in the use of English, and by the time he is admitted to a Modern School or a Senior Class at the age of 11+, a certain command of good spoken English should have been acquired. At this stage, speech training should largely consist in the study of phrasing, enunciation, reading aloud and recitation, and so far as possible in the systematic development of the power of extemporary speech. In this respect, traditional methods require to be revised. Undue emphasis has hitherto, in many instances, been laid on written exercises. Furthermore, the examination system demands proficiency in writing answers on paper. It is almost unnecessary to point out that effective speaking is nearly as important as effective writing. One of the most effective means of practising oral speech is the encouragement of debates for older children, provided they be properly organised and conducted on lines appropriate to the age and interests of the scholars. The subject proposed for discussion might be studied beforehand in books, newspapers, and works of reference, and also by means of individual inquiries at home and elsewhere. As a variation on debates, brief lectures might from time to time be given by

[page 192]

individual pupils on some subject which they know well, and such lectures might then be followed by a class discussion. The general aim should be to train pupils to express themselves on familiar subjects clearly, fluently and consecutively.

A certain amount of dictation and even of transcription of carefully selected passages in prose and verse should be included in the written work, but the most important part of that work must always be composition, which should be regarded as a method and means of eliciting the pupil's knowledge and experience in many subjects, rather than as a subject in itself. For this reason the extension of the children's experience, interest or knowledge is a valuable aid to the acquisition of facility in expression. A whole book, or a lesson in its entirety, is often too wide a subject for a single composition exercise, and as a rule definite questions furnish more suitable subjects. Descriptions provide good topics for literary exercises and the children's own experiences open up a field that offers material for concrete, definite and detailed accounts. In their written work the pupils should above all be trained to set out their thoughts in ordered sequence and to arrange their essays systematically in paragraphs. This of course presupposes a preliminary survey of the topic handled by the writer, and the preparation of a rough outline of the heads of the subject matter. Pupils should be encouraged to criticise their own efforts and thus progressively to increase their command of English. As bearing on this point, we would draw attention to the desirability of training pupils in Modern Schools and Senior Classes in the art of letter-writing. Such letters should arise out of circumstances and conditions which the pupils clearly realise or which have come within their personal experience and should have a definite purpose.

In order to inculcate and develop a love of literature in his pupils the teacher should treat it as a form of art in which life has been interpreted. The grammatical and linguistic sides of the study of literature, though important, should be kept in a secondary place in post-primary schools. This especially applies to the study of great creative work, more particularly poetry, which, being deeply tinged with emotion, cannot be fully appreciated without a certain emotional response on the part of the pupil. At the same time the grammatical side should not be neglected, and it devolves on the teacher to ensure that so far as possible every pupil in the class

[page 193]

has thoroughly mastered the meaning of the passages which are being studied. Even for pupils of this age much pleasure and profit may be derived from a study of the precise significance and use of individual words and phrases in a work of great literature. Select passages of prose or poetry of a character that appeals to the pupils' imagination and interest should be committed to memory and recited from time to time in class. It is not necessary or desirable that all the pupils in a class should learn by heart the same pieces, and a special choice of passages for this purpose might well be left to the tastes of individual pupils.

The chief object in the teaching of literature is the communication of zest, and this is possible only if the pieces selected are those which the teacher can read with full enjoyment. Commentary should be used solely as a means of heightening the pleasure of great literature, of explaining its content when explanation is needed, and particularly of tactfully drawing attention to the beauty and appropriateness of its form. Some simple instruction in metre as well as in prose style might well be given. Students should be encouraged to write exercises in verse. This will improve their vocabulary, enable them to appreciate the technical qualities of verse composition, and may also be a great enjoyment in itself.

The private reading of the scholars will of course vary according to their individual tastes, and it is obvious that within reasonable limits they should be encouraged to read widely for their own pleasure. On the other hand, so far as school work is concerned, books must necessarily be the chief source of information for the pupils, who should accordingly be trained to read and use them with definite objects in view, or in other words to concentrate their reading in so far as it bears on their work. To this end, exercises, problems and questions arising out of their reading should be set them, and the older pupils in Modern Schools, and in many Senior Classes, should be trained to use works of reference, and to select and collate the particular information required. The proper use of an index should be explained. It is scarcely necessary to point out that similar methods should be employed in history, geography and other subjects, which from a broader aspect all form part of the teaching of English. The efforts of the pupils in these directions should always be tested in such a way that

[page 194]

the tests should not only have a stimulating effect, but should also disclose the young student's limitations and show the teacher where guidance is specially needed.

The school library, more especially on the side of English literature, forms a very important part of the equipment of an efficient school. The balance and range of the books should be such as to include historical novels and biographies, books of travel, English classics and good anthologies of English verse. These works might be arranged in class libraries, and there should, if possible, also be a general school library, which should include some good standard works of reference such as those mentioned above and histories of the county or city. In schools where a bias of any kind is given to the curriculum, the library should also contain some good general works on technical subjects. Additions to the collections of books for class study might be made by adding a few copies of different works, rather than many copies of the same book. In areas where there is a local public library, teachers often encourage their pupils to make use of it, or of any other facilities offered by the local authority. In many districts the librarian of the local library collaborates with the school authorities, a portion of the library is reserved for the use of pupils in post-primary schools, and a special catalogue is prepared for juvenile readers. The teachers on their part post up in the classroom lists under subject heads of any suitable books obtainable in the local library which bear on the syllabuses used in the school, and visits by the scholars to it for purposes of study are arranged. In rural areas recourse is had to the arrangement by which sets of books circulate to the schools from a distributing centre.

There can be no doubt that too much time and attention were formerly devoted to the study of formal grammar in elementary schools, and in consequence a natural reaction set in. A considerable proportion of that time was occupied in dealing with intricate technicalities which had no obvious bearing on the teaching of English composition. Moreover there was a great difference of opinion as to the value of any formal instruction in the subject. We think, however, that some instruction in the elements of grammar is valuable, especially where classical languages are not taught, and that such instruction might best be given in connection with the teaching of composition, and to a less extent in association with reading aloud. Some knowledge

[page 195]

of grammar enables the children to test their own English, and we would urge that such knowledge of formal grammar as is required to enable the pupils to understand the art of writing correct English is indispensable and should be included in the timetable. In many instances there would probably be no need to have a textbook in grammar, but the pupils should of course, know the parts of speech and their functions in the sentence. In order to secure these results in a systematic way, a course of instruction should be arranged which would fulfil the practical purposes in each individual school. It should be drawn up by the teacher in the light of his own knowledge of the power of expression and understanding of language shown by his scholars.

Of all the subjects in the curriculum history, in the larger sense of the term, is the most difficult for young people to comprehend; yet it contains materials which should make it most interesting. Its difficulty is well recognised, for, as the Board's Suggestions for the consideration of teachers and others concerned in the work of Public Elementary Schools point out, history deals with the actions of men and women, and its province must therefore be a difficult one for children to explore. Nor indeed is this the only ground which makes it a specially difficult subject for young people. The terms that occur so frequently in dealing with the subject - liberty, freedom, tyranny, democracy, aristocracy, diplomacy, kingship, empire, government, parliament, and terms allied to these - bear different interpretations at different periods. The generalisations necessarily used often involve such large assumptions both of historical knowledge and of experience as to make them liable to be little more than mere phrases to the pupils. The generally accepted standards of action and conduct in different fields - and especially in public affairs - vary from age to age; and the whole outlook of people in the various periods of the past is conditioned by circumstances of thought and environment of which we can never know more than a part. So much difference do these factors make that what in one age is regarded as an evil may, in another, come to be looked upon as a benefit. For the same reasons arrangements which, in the abstract, seem just and sensible may, in practice, prove quite unworkable. To present

[page 196]

material of this nature in such a way that truth may appear, even approximately, is a difficult task. Despite this difficulty, there is much in historical studies that children can appreciate and enjoy. In the first place, much of history deals with people who. in their actions, excite within the pupil the primitive emotions, courage, fear, anger, pity, admiration and joy, as well as the desire for fair play. Achievement, too, plays a large part in the subject; and dramatic moments of success or failure always absorb the eager attention of youth. Furthermore the colour, strangeness, and incongruities of other times as compared with our own never fail to capture the imagination of young people. Moreover, at this age they are beginning to be curious about the origins of things around them; they discover that in many subtle ways the past is ever present, and the whole environment assumes a new and interesting expression. Therefore, for these reasons alone, history should occupy an important place in the curricula of all types of post-primary school. But there is another value in the study of history which makes the subject of first importance. If it be true that education should enable man to adapt himself more readily to his environment, it follows that history has a very definite contribution to make to the education of the individual as a member of society.

The need for instruction in civics or citizenship has long been recognised, and sporadic attempts are made from time to time to introduce specific courses on the subject somewhere in the schemes of instruction for older children. Opinion is divided, however, as to the necessity for this, if the syllabuses in history are well thought out and the work is carried on by specially qualified teachers; for a little consideration of the responsibilities and duties of the individual towards the community in which he lives will show that they arise out of conditions which are historic in character. What then can be done in the matter of history teaching to meet the demand that men and women shall, as far as possible, be satisfactorily educated to meet these civic responsibilities? The answer is partly suggested by a consideration of the existing practice - practice which shows a commendable diversity.

In this diversity, however, judging from the evidence before us, there is one feature which is common practically to all types of schools; it is still true to say that an outline of the history of the English people forms the main feature in almost

[page 197]

every school. But whereas in the past it was mainly a political outline, various modifications in the direction of including other aspects of the subject, such as social history, constitutional history, and so forth, have been introduced. The political outline of the earlier schemes was based upon a general tradition that every child should know something of the chief events and outstanding characters in English history. And this 'information' point of view has been responsible also for many of the modifications; for not only social and constitutional history, but elements of economic history, imperial history, and world history, have all, in turn, claimed a place in the history schemes as being 'what every child ought to know'. But there are limits to a child's mental capacity, and the weight of the syllabus has compelled the introduction of differentiation, and of experiment in various types of history schemes, together with inquiries as to what should be our aims in teaching the subject. While there is still much experimental work required, there appears to be an increasing amount of agreement on certain fundamental points both as to the purpose of history teaching, and as to the suitability of the material to the pupil's stage of development.

Before considering these points we must, at least briefly, review what is done with the children before they attain the age of 11+. There is much evidence of a general agreement that stories of historic personages are the most suitable form in which the subject may be introduced. If however we regard history proper as the study of the development of the organised life of a community, this work can scarcely be called history. Nevertheless, as an introduction for the purpose of arousing interest in historical characters and historical events, it is most valuable. In some of the best schools these stories are connected mainly with prehistoric times and the ancient civilisations, Egyptian, Babylonian, Persian, Greek and Roman. Through such work as this the children acquire at least the idea that there were great peoples in the world long before the time when the Romans conquered Britain, and that to these peoples we owe some of the ordinary things that form part of our everyday life. And although at this stage little real historical knowledge is possible, a sense of the order in which the different civilisations follow one another can be created, with the advantage that the Romans and the ancient Britons no longer appear as though history began with them.

[page 198]

When we come to the post-primary stage, as we have already seen, agreement is less well defined, for although an outline of English history is the dominant element it is frequently modified by the stress laid on some special aspect. The general principles governing the teaching of history can no longer be summed up in terms of the information supplied. How then can the governing principles, if any, be stated? The best teachers would probably claim that they have a four-fold objective in teaching the subject - first and foremost to give the pupil an abiding interest in history; then to enable him (i) to get some appreciation of past ages, (ii) to understand something of the interaction of events and of the development from one set of conditions to another as time progresses, and (iii) to see the present as a development of the past. In working towards these aims the teacher is developing an attitude of mind and processes of thought which are peculiar to historical studies; the pupil must think of things historical not only in relation to the times in which they exist but in relation also to the long train of antecedents from which they come and the new growths to which they give rise, i.e. he must acquire the habit of thinking not only of the surrounding circumstances of any particular event, but also of what has gone before and what comes after. Incidentally, he will see with an increasing degree of fullness something of the complexity of even simple problems of public life. In all this work it will be seen there is nothing impossible, for it is independent of the kind of historical material selected. Provided the pupil is acquiring the habit of looking at human endeavour historically, and not as it were in isolation, the teaching is fulfilling these conditions. Naturally, the accuracy and completeness with which it is done depend upon the intellectual stage which the pupil has reached, and the suitability of the material used. With these young people the historical matter should not involve too many abstractions, and these should be such as can be illustrated by means of the pupil's knowledge or experience. Furthermore too many factors of a diverse kind should not be considered together. This second limitation suggests that, while the chronological order of events needs to be maintained, the presentation should be topical; e.g. in the later Middle Ages, such subjects as Feudal Times, The Church and the Crusades, The Hundred Years' War, Guilds and Towns, and similar topics, are taken as a whole rather than in the sections which come under separate reigns or even separate centuries. A difficulty of another

[page 199]

kind is involved in the amount of material that it is possible to present. Time demands that this shall be extremely small in proportion to the whole; hence the danger of lack of perspective. But direct reminders of the fact that large omissions have been made overcome this danger to some extent.

Despite these difficulties the fact that we need consider only habits of thought, together with the notions involved, simplifies the problem of selection of material; for, in this way, the child's stage of development becomes the chief consideration. In this connection, it is quite clear from the evidence that schemes containing a considerable element of social history make the strongest appeal to the pupils we are considering. The ever increasing popularity of books dealing with social life is a further evidence of this. The reasons are not far to seek. The matter deals with subjects well within the child's comprehension. It lends itself to the making of sketches, an activity which the pupils particularly enjoy; frequently the locality provides a considerable amount of concrete evidence. Nevertheless, the eminent suitability of social history does not preclude the addition of such other elements as can be made intelligible to the young mind. Indeed, it would be difficult to separate other sides, e.g. William of Normandy's Conquest of England, the monastic orders, the guilds, the manorial courts, the church festivals and parish work, or the features of knighthood and chivalry, from the social life of the people.

It is probable that the history of the pupil's own community will continue to be the principal part of the work. For in taking this he not only has, either around him or in an easily accessible form, much concrete evidence, but he lives under traditions and customs which are themselves the outcome of the history he will be studying; and this makes it easier for him to understand something of the development of these traditions and customs, and stimulates his curiosity about the origins of things. In this connection the fourth aim - to view the present as a development of the past - can be accomplished only if the history, at least in outline, is brought down to the present. Consequently, it will be necessary so to space the work that all periods of British history are treated in the three years from 11 to 14. As to the distribution of the work over these three years, there is considerable diversity in cases where this arrangement is adopted. Some schemes still adhere to the time honoured divisions in which 1485 and 1689 are taken as the dates of break.

[page 200]

Others touch but lightly upon the period to 1485, presumably because something has been attempted in the earlier years of the pupil's school life, and treat more fully the period 1485 to 1689 in the first year of the post-primary course. The remaining period 1689 to the present is then divided in two, with 1789 as the dividing date. Others again make the periods - (i) to 1485 (ii) 1485 - 1715 (iii) 1715-1926; here the idea is to give more fully than usual the Scottish and Irish contribution in the middle period and, in the third period, to emphasise the element of colonial adventure as well as that of industrial expansion, so that the three periods run: English history, British history. Imperial history. But whatever division is made, the main thing is to secure that no large factor should be entirely omitted. This does not imply a general uniform syllabus, but it does imply that the whole period, at least from the time of the Romans to the present, should be covered in some form. In each of the various types of schools the kind and amount of material included in the history course will depend upon the particular quality of mental ability in the children and the facilities, in the matter of illustrations and apparatus, for making the work of real living interest.

A feature which is becoming increasingly marked is the introduction of world history into the schemes of work for these older pupils. It has always been the case that the relations of England with the continent have involved excursions into the history of countries outside the British Isles (e.g. in the Hundred Years' War, points from French history have always been introduced), but these excursions were only for this purpose of making intelligible the actions of England; the Hundred Years' War, to take the example quoted, was not treated as a general event in European history. In a few schools a three years' course in world history instead of English history has been adopted.

But in the majority of cases, where world history has been introduced, it is taken in one of three other ways. In some Central Schools a preliminary sketch, up to the time of the Romans in Britain, is given in the first year. This preliminary sketch has the merit of being either a revision, on somewhat more advanced lines, of the work done in the junior classes in some schools before the children reach the age of 11+, or the equivalent of that work. This is followed by a three years' course on British history concurrently with such features of world history as have markedly influenced our own. In other instances, this arrangement has been partially reversed. For

[page 201]

the first three years the course consists of British history with so much world history as may be understood, and as is necessary to the fuller understanding of our own. In the fourth year a series of topics from world history is taken. This series consists of subjects drawn from (i) ancient history, (ii) the points in general history already touched upon in the British history work, together with a minimum of connecting topics which are necessary to complete the outline. In this arrangement it is argued that the preliminary training in British history gives a concrete background which ensures some understanding of the wider generalisations in world history, and that the general topics are not too far removed from the work already accomplished.

But whatever arrangement is adopted there appears to be considerable general agreement (a) that the main work of the course should be general British history, with some idea of its world setting; (b) that in the earlier years the social and dramatic elements should be predominant; and (c) that the various other aspects should be taken, (i) in close connection with the social background, or (ii) more fully as special courses, only in the later stages. In Modern Schools there is much to be said for making the last year a time for the introduction of economic history. There are good reasons for this; the subject bears obviously upon the pupil's future occupation; young people of 15 years of age are more than a little inclined to discuss economic questions; the material for its study is nearer to their immediate interests; it brings in much matter connected with legislation; it involves responsibilities connected with the individual as a member of a community; it necessitates the consideration of material factors outside one's own country; incidentally, it introduces the pupils to the great complexity of economic problems which are so often regarded as matters of common sense. It is of course necessary that this work should be simple, and that the economic factor in history should not assume a disproportionate importance in the minds of the learners. The general course will have done something to prevent this, but the teacher will need constantly to remind his pupils of other forces - nonetheless powerful because unseen - which mould the destinies of nations. As alternatives to economic history such subjects as the machinery of government, the development of self-government in the Dominions, the development of law, or world history, are well worth experiment in the final year of school life.

[page 202]

8. Having discussed the principles underlying the teaching of history and the chief general features of the many varied schemes in use we offer some suggestions for its development. One of the teacher's most difficult tasks is the selection of historical details to form the syllabus. Despite the limitation of the pupil's mental range there is a great quantity of historical material which he can understand and enjoy and from which selection must be made. It is important, therefore, that there should be in every Modern School a teacher with special knowledge of and interest in this subject; and that he should be responsible under the general direction of the head teacher for the organisation of the work and the framing of the syllabus. Bearing in mind the principles enunciated above, the teacher will select preferably such incidents and details as lead to some understanding of the society in which the pupil lives, and of the working of its institutions, together with some notions of the way in which it has come to its present stage. In presenting this he will not confine himself to special aspects, but will rather take every opportunity to bring out the reaction of various aspects and events upon one another, and the interaction of geographical and historical influences. Perhaps a word of warning is necessary here. The implications which arise in the mind of the pupil when considering historical data and his interpretation of generalisations throw a great responsibility on the teacher if the pupil is to make a beginning in the process of acquiring the power to form independent judgement; for at this stage a complete understanding is impossible because his background of historical knowledge is so small. It is important, therefore, that he should not accept ready-made generalisations without realising something of the qualifications to which they are liable; and this realisation will depend upon the attitude of the teacher and the way in which the material is presented.

9. In coming to the 19th and 20th centuries the part played by the teacher becomes more difficult still. While on the one hand he will probably have the advantage of a much shorter historical period to cover in a year, and that with children nearing the end of their course, on the other hand that period is much more crowded with events - events which are so near as to make it difficult to see them in due proportion. But with a well-read and judicious teacher, and with a selection of topics suitable to the young mind, the work should not be impossible. In any case such material as is selected should be linked up with current

[page 203]

events, and the growing sense of the interdependence of communities, as shown, for example, in the work of the League of Nations, should receive due prominence.

10. Whatever historical details are selected to form the various sections of the scheme, it should, in its entirety, form a coherent whole with a definite framework of knowledge in chronological sequence. Of this framework much will be forgotten in later life; a few vital dates and facts should, therefore, be driven home at every opportunity - preferably by the use of a time chart. In covering the work of the scheme many forms of activity should be encouraged. Opportunities should be given for discussion and informal talk, for independent reading both for a specific object and for general information; there should also be some training in individual inquiry by means of books, newspapers and historical maps, some simple survey work in connection with local history, educational visits, and school journeys; and records of such work should be produced in written form by the pupils.

11. Work of this character, however, cannot be carried on unless special attention is given to apparatus. Besides attractively written text books a library of some kind is essential, and it should contain, besides a few good works of reference, books which would serve to amplify the text book outline and to illustrate contemporary conditions at different periods; historical novels; good historical maps; a sufficient number of copies of a good historical atlas; and a generous supply of good illustrations. For books, illustrations and historical atlases are to the teacher of history as important as apparatus in the science laboratory is to the teacher of science; and good training in history is impossible where the work is confined to the textbook. Excellent illustrations are to be obtained from the various art galleries, the British Museum, and the Victoria and Albert and other museums at a trifling cost; and the Medici Society has produced a whole series of reprints of great pictures, designed for school use to illustrate the history of art.

The importance of geography as a subject in the curriculum for all types of post-primary education needs little arguing. Travel and correspondence have now become general; the British dominions are to be found in every clime; and these facts alone

[page 204]

are sufficient to ensure that the subject shall have an important place in every school timetable. But these utilitarian reasons are not the only ones that make its claims to inclusion in the timetable incontrovertible; and from some points of view they are not even the most important. For however useful geographical information may be, its value must rest, for the purpose of our reference, on its use as an instrument of education, i.e. as a means of developing the growing interests of the pupils. In this connection, it has proved itself to be a subject which, when well taught, makes a very strong appeal to them. As a consequence, it should occupy no subsidiary or doubtful place, but should be one of the principal items in the curriculum. During the last twenty-five years the method of teaching geography has noticeably changed; perhaps no subject has made a more general advance, and the main principles are now widely known. Nevertheless, it may be of value to set them forth briefly here. The main objective in good geographical teaching is to develop, as in the case of history, an attitude of mind and a mode of thought characteristic of the subject. In the study of any one region the following elements are involved: (i) the physical and climatic conditions that go to form the region; (ii) the characteristics of the inhabitants; and (iii) the conditions and effects of their work. The objective which we have stated requires as an essential principle that these three elements should be viewed habitually together, and their relationship and interaction thus constantly studied.

The extent to which this principle can be satisfactorily carried out must depend primarily upon the training and qualifications of the teacher. For it is fatally easy to make false deductions on unsatisfactory or insufficient data, and to learn striking generalisations without any conception of the materials from which they should be formed. Moreover, the increase in the facilities for more rapid and more general communications, the wider dissemination of knowledge, the opening up of fresh natural resources, the development of new industries, and the varied rates of growth in the population of different areas make great demands upon the teacher for a constant readjustment of his outlook. It is important, therefore, that, in all Modern Schools and Senior Classes, the teacher in charge of the subject, in addition to his general qualifications and training, should have given, and should be able to give, some special attention to it:

[page 205]

and further, that in selective Modern Schools, where the ages of the pupils may range from 11 to 16, it is desirable that he should have had some special geographical training also.

Second only to the qualifications of the teacher is the provision of adequate equipment. In this perhaps some differentiation might be made between the various types of school. In schools where the linguistic attainments of the pupils are high and their background of experience is considerable, a more adequate provision of textbooks, which at the same time will be of a more advanced character, is necessary than in schools where pupils are less advanced in these respects. This more advanced literary material will demand more accommodation and more equipment for practical work, although there will not be so great an amount of the latter. On the other hand, in the other type of school, more provision will be needed for school journeys, educational visits, and for the construction of simple apparatus. Where circumstances permit, and in the planning of new schools, it would be advantageous to equip one classroom, having a southern aspect, as a geography room. If the geographical work of all or most of the classes were taken in this room, the necessity for duplicating larger apparatus, such as wall maps, would be removed. But whatever difference there may be between school and school, much of the equipment will be common to all types. Of this common equipment the first and most important item is a sufficient supply of good atlases to ensure one for each pupil; and in this provision we would urge generosity. An atlas should be the most frequently used volume in the pupil's outfit. All other books he changes from time to time; his atlas must be with him throughout his school career, and it is handled in such a variety of ways that, if used as it should be, its life is inevitably shorter than that of most other books. The atlas should have a good index, and the maps should be artistically produced. There is a great attraction for pupils in the study of good maps; and such is the fascination that they will take up map studies with as much pleasure as they take up recreation. Supplementing the atlases, there should be a supply of wall maps and one or two globes. The wall maps should be of various kinds, not merely physical and political maps; maps showing other distributions, such as rainfall, temperature, vegetation, population, trade routes, geological conditions, are necessary; and where possible, closely

[page 206]

interconnected distributions should be shown on the same map. For observation work, particularly in connection with the study of maps dealing with climate, there should be in every school a barometer, a maximum and minimum thermometer, and a wet and dry bulb thermometer. Apparatus such as a simple plane table and sighting rule, a sundial, and perhaps a simple theodolite, might easily be made in the handwork room or in the centre for practical instruction.

In the matter of books, some differentiation would be required. For in selective Modern Schools and particularly in schools in which a high standard of work is possible, the content of the syllabuses would be more ambitious and more academic in character, so that in the later years, say from 13 onwards, the type of book in use might be very much on the lines of a good ordinary textbook. On the other hand, in schools where such books are too difficult, textbooks of a semi-descriptive type would be used throughout, although the content of such books would be set out in accordance with the principle governing good geographical teaching. The problem of the style of the books for such schools needs special consideration. The tendency is for the geography of the British Isles to be dealt with on fairly simple lines, and the world as a whole in more technical language. But modern teaching tends to the presentation of some world aspects concurrently with the study of the British Isles, and books dealing with these larger areas in simple language are, as a consequence, very necessary. In addition to the textbooks for use during the course, there should be a supply of works containing good descriptions drawn from the accounts of travellers and explorers.

In addition to books, collections of illustrations typical of scenery and conditions of life in different regions should form a regular part of the school equipment, especially in Senior Classes and in the non-selective Modern School. In this connection, some teachers have themselves formed excellent collections from poster and picture-card advertisements of business firms and railway companies, and from the publications of the Dominion Governments. But only pictures which bring out some special geographical feature, or which illustrate some geographical principle, should be included, and when they are in use, attention should be concentrated on these features. For this reason lantern slides are often a more effective aid

[page 207]

because they are usually made with the definite object of illustrating some special point. Moreover, the illustration is sufficiently large to be seen and studied by the whole class under the guidance of the teacher. It is obvious that the portrayal of objects and scenes which involve movement cannot be adequately represented by means of lantern slides. In the illustration of such scenes the use of the cinematograph is most desirable. Beyond this material for the use of children there are certain publications other than textbooks which should be provided, primarily that teachers and pupils in all types of schools may follow the movements of commerce and industry. These are 'The Statistical Abstract of Trade,' 'The Labour Gazette,' 'Commercial Intelligence,' the reports of the Board of Agriculture, the publications of the Dominion Governments relative to conditions of life, labour and settlement in the respective Dominions, and a work such as 'The Statesman's Year Book' or 'Whittaker's Almanack'.

The suitability of the equipment necessarily plays a large part in determining the content and stages of the geography course in the average elementary school; but as there are now at least a few textbooks dealing with all parts of the world in comparatively simple language a variety of alternative schemes is increasingly possible. Whatever course may be taken, however, it will presuppose a certain minimum of preliminary study during the age period from 7 to 11. It is reasonable to assume that under average conditions the average child by the age of 11 will have acquired (i) some simple notions, by direct observations, of the sun, wind and weather, and of the seasons; (ii) simple ideas, again from direct observation of actual scenery or of suitable photographs, of the principal features composing landscapes, and of their representation on maps; (iii) some knowledge of the prominent physical features of the British Isles, of two or three outstanding features of our climate and of the major industries, together with a few of their principal centres; and (iv) some simple ideas, mainly from descriptions and pictures, of the shape of the earth, of the distribution of land and water, and of the clearly defined climatic areas such as the Arctic regions, the desert areas, the Steppe lands, and the forest belts, including the wet tropical lands.

Starting from this basis, in which the general character of the work is descriptive, the course for the senior pupils will

[page 208]

require a different treatment. This difference will show itself in three ways: (i) in a systematic study of all kinds of maps so far as they are suitable to the age of the pupils; (ii) in a closer observance of principles, enunciated at the beginning of this section, in their application to regional studies; and (iii) in the more frequent unaided use of the text book, by the children themselves, for the purpose of extracting information and making summaries.

In the understanding of maps, the educational visit, the school journey, the weather observations and records, and suitable pictures, will all play a very valuable part. All observations, whether of physical features or of weather conditions, should be kept in close relationship with the type of map which represents them. The map of the locality should be thoroughly understood in its relation to the area which it covers, and much attention should be given to the study of contour maps for the purpose of imagining distance, direction and the configuration of the land. By these means, maps begin to suggest to the pupil's mind the concrete ideas which they are intended to convey. Map projections and simple surveying should be reserved for the later stages; but the simple uses of latitude and longitude might be taken at the beginning of the course. It is quite easy for the children to see that latitude and longitude combined give the precise situation of any place; that latitude enables them to find the angle of incidence of the sun's rays at midday in different parts of the world, and also assists in judging distances; and that longitude is specially useful in estimating the hour of the day in different countries. In order that children may appreciate the true comparative sizes of various areas it is desirable that the maps in any particular series should be drawn to the same scale.

But the interpretation of maps is not the only practical value which can be drawn from a thorough study of the locality. The home district, or some easily accessible one, is an essential for the first-hand study of geographical relationships - lines of communication and configuration, sites of castles and defensive features, sites of villages and water supply and drainage, soils, rocks and local industries, vegetation, etc. In this respect rural schools are well served, and we would urge much outdoor study in geography as well as in science in these schools, for in this way the geography, even of foreign countries, becomes a

[page 209]

much more real thing. In schools situated in the centres of great cities this problem is much more difficult of solution, but every child should have some opportunities of studying, map in hand, the configuration of a district. Consequently, for these, the educational visit and, if possible, the school journey should be as certainly a part of the school timetable as the subjects themselves. On another side, however, town schools have an advantage over rural schools. The industries, the warehouses, the shops, the railways and the docks can be used, not only to illustrate the interaction of geographical and human elements, but also to demonstrate the interdependence of the peoples of the world.

Important as this work is it is still only a means to an end. Side by side with this must proceed an ordered study of the geography of the world together with some more detailed study of those regions which directly concern the British boy or girl. In dealing with this, such differentiation as there may be will be determined partly by the length of the course, and partly by the rate at which pupils can assimilate book work. There is much to be said for completing a simple general sketch in the first three years in all types of school. In the senior classes and in some classes of the non-selective Modern School, less geographical detail would be given, and more concrete and experimental work carried out. But apart from this, the regular study of maps, the making of rough sketch maps, the insertion of distributions in outline maps, and the practice of making notes and of writing essays should be general.

Assuming that children by the age of 11 have acquired the body of geographical knowledge mentioned above, we give a brief indication of the kind of work which a three years' course might cover. In the work of the children under the age of 11 the British Isles claim the fullest treatment, but this treatment will be largely descriptive. It forms, therefore, a good basis for the work of the first year with senior children. Accompanying this would be the study of some portion of the world which would involve all the main climatic zones. For this purpose, either the Americas or the three southern continents would be suitable. In the second year the remaining portion of the world would be studied, by comparison and contrast, wherever possible, with the parts of the world covered in the first year; this would be supplemented by a short revision of the geography of the British

[page 210]

Isles. The third year for the Senior Classes and non-selective Modern School might then be very properly devoted to the British Empire. But even here the geography taken should not be rigidly exclusive of the other parts of the world. Some such scheme as this ensures not only the observance of satisfactory principles in dealing with the subject, but also some geographical knowledge, in proper perspective, of the world as a whole. Moreover, by spacing the work in this way, the amount of detailed knowledge of the different regions will be in proportion to the bearing those regions have upon the lives of the children. Naturally, in covering such a large area the detail will not be great, but the pupil will have acquired the habit of looking at geography geographically, of quick intelligent use of maps and atlases, and of referring to books to obtain the information which he seeks. Nevertheless, essential details should be firmly grasped and the essential names clearly fixed in the memory.

In the selective Modern School where there is a fourth year it might be occupied with a thorough study of the British Isles in their world relations. In the school with an industrial bias some of the greater industries - cotton, wool, steel and so forth - might be studied in detail in connection with (i) areas supplying the raw material, (ii) areas receiving the manufactured articles, and (iii) the competition of areas of other nations carrying on the same industries. On the other hand, schools with a commercial bias might pay special attention to commercial questions including those of transport, distribution, markets and so forth. In both classes of schools this course might be accompanied by a broad study of the great natural regions of the world, with a view to the pupil's understanding the basis of the classification in each case. In rural schools the course, in addition to providing for the same general education in geography, might be arranged to include vegetation and food products, with some reference to the interdependence of industrial and agricultural areas.

We may begin by summarising our reasons for suggesting the inclusion of a modern foreign language in the courses of study for post-primary schools. In the first place a foreign language is an excellent educational subject, since it brings into play and stimulates the mental activities of the pupils and widens their

[page 211]

outlook and interests as citizens of the world. From another aspect, it affords a good means to literary culture, through the study of works of great literature, and thus to a truly liberal education. Further, it may be of practical use in certain industries and occupations, and helps to equip the pupils for the work of earning their livelihood. It has thus at once a disciplinary, a literary and a practical value.

The choice of the foreign language to be learnt must depend to a great extent on the locality in which the school is situated and on the supply of teachers. French, or Spanish, or German, are already being taught in most Secondary Schools and in certain Central Schools, while French is taught in a few elementary schools which are attempting advanced work. It is possible that in post-primary schools in certain districts a European language, other than the three named above, might sometimes find a place.

At the present time, provision is not infrequently made for a four years' course in a foreign language in secondary schools and in the existing Central Schools in London and Manchester. The experience thus gained proves that much can be achieved in this time with pupils between the ages of 11+ and 15+. It seems probable, however, that something of value could be done, even in a three years' course, for children between the ages of 11+ and 14+, provided that favourable conditions be assured, and that a lesson in the language be given every day, i.e. 5 periods (of not less than 40 minutes) a week.

There seems no doubt that, when modern languages are more generally taught in Modern Schools and Senior Classes there will be a noticeable demand for evening classes, in the various languages studied, from former pupils of post-primary schools who desire to continue their studies.

Eleven is a suitable age at which to begin the study of a modern foreign language. The child's perceptions are acute, his vocal organs are still flexible, and he is comparatively free from that morbid dread of ridicule which may impede the progress of older pupils. Imitation of sounds and learning by heart will present little difficulty. Furthermore, the pupil's interest is easily aroused and he is quick to imbibe the life and spirit of a foreign language. Indeed, it is found that most children take up this new study with remarkable enthusiasm.

[page 212]

Modern methods of teaching living languages make great demands on the teacher, who is now expected to train his pupils to use the language for purposes of conversation and intercourse from the earlier stages. At the present time, the supply of teachers qualified to give such instruction is limited. The supply from universities is to a great extent absorbed by the Secondary Schools. Until that source of supply has been largely increased, Modern Schools and Senior Classes will probably have to look chiefly to teachers trained in the two year colleges. Some of the students from these colleges take a third year in completion of a degree course and are thus able to pursue a course comprising a modern language. Others study a modern language as part of their training college course, and some again take a third year for the purpose of studying a language abroad. Few of these students during their two years' course at college have received any training in the new methods of teaching modern languages, nor, except in rare instances, any practice in teaching. There are indeed some students who have done well in their college course in a modern language and have continued their studies after leaving the training college, but they are at a noticeable disadvantage in comparison with their colleagues who have specialised in other subjects of the curriculum, unless they find opportunities for spending some of their holidays abroad. For example, a specialist in geography might often be consulted by his headmaster in drawing up schemes and syllabuses, and would probably be allowed considerable discretion as to the content of the syllabus in geography, and the methods to be followed. The specialist in modern languages, however, who enters an ordinary elementary school will for the reason given above have few opportunities for teaching a foreign language, and thus putting into practice the knowledge which he has obtained. It is obvious that local education authorities will have to encourage teachers who have specialised in modern languages to keep up and improve their knowledge of the subject by affording them opportunities to attend classes and holiday courses whether at home or abroad. It was, however, pointed out to us that the universities, through their four years' training courses for teachers, are producing a supply of teachers, part of whose training has consisted of an intensive study of a modern language, including residence abroad, and who form a recruiting ground which has not hitherto been sufficiently exploited.

[page 213]

If it were possible without lowering the standard of qualifications to extend the number of exchanges under the Convention, which has been in operation since 1905, for the exchange of language teachers between this country and France, we think that the Modern Schools would be very suitable to be included in the scheme.

As the whole course lasts only three or at the most four years we consider that it is desirable that 5 periods a week should be assigned to the study of the modern language. In any case we regard 4 periods a week as the minimum. Songs, recitations and games in the foreign language should form an integral part of the teaching, and if they are judiciously used should prevent any lesson from becoming tedious and reconcile the pupil to the really hard work of acquiring a mastery of the grammar structure and vocabulary of the foreign language. To take French as an example, teachers of that language should aim at making their pupils able:

(i) to pronounce French in a way not displeasing to their hearers;
(ii) to understand spoken French;
(iii) to speak intelligently on subjects within the range of their experience;
(iv) to understand the meaning of the printed language;
(v) to write freely if not accurately in French;
(vi) to realise that a knowledge of French will give them the key to a famous literature.

A grammar, preferably in French, should be used, but at first it should be employed mainly for reference. French should be spoken during the lesson as a rule, if not exclusively, by both teacher and pupils. Phrases and vocabulary in everyday use should be made familiar by frequent practice both orally and on paper. Composition exercises should be largely based on oral work and on the texts read in school. These aims and this method can of course be modified to suit the teacher's gifts and the results of his or her experience with children of the age and

[page 214]

mental attainments common in these schools, but they will be a guide at starting and, though suggested for French, apply with little alteration to the teaching of any modern foreign language.

Wherever possible, the teaching of the modern language should be carried on in one particular room, which should contain a collection of maps, pictures, postcards, foreign calendars, artistic advertisements, etc., calculated to interest the pupil in the new language and people. The room should also contain a small lending library containing works which would appeal not only to the more advanced pupil, but also to the beginner. For example, it should contain books used by young French, Spanish or German children. It would also be desirable, if possible, to take in a newspaper, or illustrated periodical, in the foreign language; and in schools where there is a slight industrial, commercial or agricultural bias, it might be advisable to subscribe to a foreign periodical, bearing in some way on the special bias, which would appeal to boys and girls with practical tastes, who would be less likely to be attracted by purely literary works. The classroom might also contain a gramophone, with a set of suitable records of passages in prose and poetry in the foreign language. Such records can be used to advantage in connection with dictation lessons and with the teaching of pronunciation and rhythm.

Lectures might also be arranged from time to time on various aspects of everyday life, say in France or Germany, with appropriate lantern slides illustrating rural and urban life, and the industries, art and scenery of the country in question.

The size of classes will depend on the general organisation of the post-primary school, and in some cases will probably be as large as 40. It is, however, highly desirable, when classes are of this size, that during the first year of the course the class should be divided into two sections, each section being taken separately for the foreign language.

There seems to be general agreement that the subject of arithmetic as taught today, not only in primary but in other types of schools, is in need of considerable improvement in regard to both choice of material and the use made of it. Arithmetic has been too long dominated by the traditional

[page 215]

utilitarian value of the subject. It has been and still is frequently regarded solely as a 'bread and butter' subject, providing the necessary facility and accuracy in such arithmetical work as will be required by the pupil in his after life. But the amount of this indispensable arithmetical knowledge, while of considerable importance, is in reality comparatively small and would not in itself justify the time given to the subject. It has, however, in its presentation in schools, been added to and overlaid by matter which is often without meaning to the child and is seldom of value to him in after life. On the other hand our modern industrial system with its complex ramifications, and the part played by science in the modern civilised community make greater demands upon the mathematical knowledge of the ordinary citizen. The scientific and engineering inventions of the modern world - motors, aeroplanes, wireless telephony and the like - all require, even for a superficial understanding of them, some knowledge of mathematical principles and their applications. Civic, national, and even international finance, closely associated as they are with our daily existence, require for an intelligent comprehension of them an increasing amount of mathematical knowledge. It is desirable, therefore, that much of the traditionary [traditional] arithmetic of the schools should be replaced by new material which will provide a wider mathematical training for the child, and that there should be included in the mathematical training of all normal children suitable parts of mensuration [measurement], algebra, geometry and trigonometry, especially such as are necessary for the intelligent comprehension of some of the problems of our everyday life.

The causes which lead us to propose the introduction of new material, as well as this new material itself, also make it necessary to modify the methods of treatment. There is little doubt that the mechanical, lifeless and abstract treatment of arithmetic which has been so common in the past has produced for many a distaste for the subject which has persisted throughout life. There is need, therefore, for more vivid, more logical and more practical methods in teaching the subject, methods which will cause the pupil to appreciate both the beauty of mathematical truths and their practical applications. If mathematical teaching is to be satisfactory there must be recognition of the two aspects of mathematical truths. On the one hand are the abstract relations which these truths have between themselves and on the other are relations to realities outside themselves. Thus in

[page 216]

the early history of mathematics a study of the geometrical properties of similar triangles enabled Thales to determine the height of a pyramid. The history of mathematical progress is a record of development of these two aspects of mathematical truths in close association with each other, and the view that they can exist as distinct forms of intellectual activity has exerted a harmful influence upon mathematical teaching. Every course therefore should aim at developing in the pupil an appreciation of the meaning and teaching of a coherent system of mathematical ideas and the realisation of the subject as an instrument of scientific, industrial and social progress.

It is apparent from evidence given to the Committee that there have been great improvements in the teaching of arithmetic in primary schools during recent years and that many teachers have developed their mathematical teaching upon satisfactory modern lines. The Committee recognise, moreover, that conditions in primary schools have frequently made it difficult to teach mathematics satisfactorily. A short school life, large classes and poor grading have both limited the amount of mathematics it has been possible to teach, and in many instances led to undue attention being devoted to mechanical processes. With the establishment of Modern Schools on the lines recommended by the Committee, many of these difficulties will no doubt disappear. It is hoped that, in a large number of cases, there will be a definite four-year course between the ages of 11 and 15, and the arrangements for grading at the beginning of the course together with the organisation into smaller classes, will produce conditions favourable for a really satisfactory treatment of the subject. It should thus be possible, with the better pupils at least, to work through a more extensive and more logical course in elementary mathematics.

It has been stated above that parts of arithmetic, still to be found in many curricula, may profitably be discarded as being unnecessary for the development of mathematical ability in after life. It is suggested that the following, among others, should be thus omitted:

Complicated fractions.
Recurring decimals.
Complicated work in practice in HCF [highest common factor] and LCM [lowest common multiple].
Cube root.

[page 217]

The omission of this work will make possible a freer treatment of arithmetic; the subject can be utilised to form a basis for other branches of mathematics which will be treated as logical developments of it. The pupil will come to view the subject of mathematics as a coherent system, the various parts acting and reacting on one another. The treatment, consequently, will not follow the usual academic lines. For example algebra will be introduced naturally when, after suitable practical work on the area of a rectangle, the pupil generalises his results, makes deductions, and employs symbols for the first time to express a formula. As his work in arithmetic and mensuration grows, so his formulae become more complex; necessity arises for their transformation and manipulation, and out of this necessity the pupil learns how to solve an equation and how to transform his formulae to make them easier for use; thus he is led to simple factorisation, easy operations, algebraical fractions and other developments. Indices are introduced as convenient abbreviations; their laws are thus readily observed and ultimately lead to logarithms, which most pupils come to regard as one of the really useful things which they learn in mathematics. It is desirable that the child should not be burdened with the academic work in algebra, such as is to be found in most textbooks on the subject. The really essential thing is that the pupil should have a clear understanding of the significance of formulae, should be able to manipulate them, to solve equations arising out of them and to use graphical methods intelligently.

Geometry may be suitably introduced when the pupil is dealing with the areas of rectangles, squares and triangles. In general there will be little formal deductive work, save from experiments, and the course in general will follow the lines of experimental geometry, such as is now to be found in good modern textbooks. It should not be confined to two-dimensional work. Practical work in the mensuration of solids will necessitate a certain amount of three-dimensional geometry of a simple character. It will be closely associated on the one hand with the work in mensuration and arithmetic, and on the other, through geometrical drawing, with manual training. It should not, however, develop merely in a series of mechanical exercises in geometrical drawing. Such work has its usefulness, but it is more important that geometry should be utilised, as far as is possible, within the limits imposed by circumstances, as a means of training in deductive processes and logical thinking.

[page 218]

Much of the work, especially in the earlier stages, will be rendered more interesting and stimulating by a judicious use of mensuration, provided that this does not resolve itself merely into learning and manipulating a number of formulae. It should rather be regarded as providing concrete material both for abstract reasoning, which is difficult for children at this stage, and for the development of other branches of mathematics. Much of the early work in mathematics is most effective and most convincing to the pupil when based upon his own experience or upon his instinctive or acquired knowledge, and the handling of concrete objects and practical experimental work will be found invaluable as aids in providing such a basis. This practical work should include not only exercises in weighing, measuring and drawing, but also the construction of models by the child and experimental work indoors and out of doors. With models of his own making, mathematical work comes to possess for the child a reality which can come to many in no other way. For example, the idea of volume and its measurement presents little difficulty to the child who builds up solids by means of cubic inches or cubic centimetres, especially if he has himself constructed them from paper or wood. Again, the use of his own model theodolite to find the height of his school or of a distant spire will produce a lasting and vivid understanding of mathematical ideas and operations which otherwise are a source of great difficulty. The child should also be led to feel the necessity of some particular rule or some new process in order to solve some problem or to help him in some practical difficulty such as will occur in intelligently conducted work in mensuration, woodwork or experimental science. Hence practical work will be a valuable part of the mathematical course. Not only does it supply a concrete and experimental basis upon which the child may proceed to abstract reasoning, but it vitalises the work for the pupil and stimulates his interest in it. It will also lead to co-ordination with other subjects in the curriculum, especially handwork, geography and elementary science.

The following is suggested as providing a suitable course of work based on the principles stated above:

Numbers. Growth of the number system.
Elementary operations with numbers.
Our money system with the usual applications.

[page 219]

The meaning of a fraction. Simple operations with fractions.
Decimals.
The measurement of length, area, volume, weight, capacity and time with appropriate tables.
The metric system.
Areas of rectangles, squares, triangles, surfaces of prisms, etc. Appropriate geometrical work.
Volumes of prisms.
Generalisation of results in above work on areas, etc. Introduction of symbols. Construction of elementary formulae. Use and manipulation of formulae. Easy equations. Transformation of formulae for purposes of computation. Easy factors.
Use of squared paper. Construction, meaning and use of graphs. Drawing to scale.
Meaning and use of averages.
Factors; common factors; HCF and LCM. Simple algebraical examples.
Further work on fractions.
Decimalisation of money. Calculation of cost.
Ratio; constant ratios. Ratios connected with angles. Sine, cosine and tangent of an angle. The right angle triangle.
Surveying problems and other practical applications. Square root.
Equal ratios; proportion; proportional quantities.
Proportional division. Similar figures.
Mensuration of the circle, cylinder, pyramid, cone and sphere, with appropriate geometry.
Percentages with applications to interest, insurances, etc. Compound Interest.
Indices, Logarithms.
Investments. Foreign currencies and methods of exchange.
True discount and present worth.*

*Mr Abbott objects to the inclusion of true discount and present worth in the course.

[page 220]

depends upon the time available, the special circumstances of the school and the bias which any particular teacher may give to the subject. In most girls' schools the course would probably need to be shortened owing to the fact that there is less time available for the subject. In rural schools there would also be omissions, and it would be adapted to the requirements of their special conditions by modifications in the treatment and changes in the emphasis on different parts of the curriculum. Modern Schools of the selective type, taking this as a basis, would make such additions, especially in algebra and geometry, as would be required by the character of the school, its objective and the length of its course.

It is very desirable that the course of elementary mathematics in all types of school should be approximately the same. For the first two years of the course the work will be mainly fundamental and will not vary materially whether in a Grammar School or a Modern School. The rate of progress will of course vary with different types of pupils, though in the better Modern Schools the course will be comparable with that in the Grammar Schools. There will be probably greater divergencies in the later years, but if the foundations laid in the first two years are similar, transference to the Grammar School at later ages will be facilitated.

There are two obvious difficulties in the way of teaching science to older pupils in Public Elementary Schools between the ages of 11+ and 14+ or 15+. One is the comparatively low leaving age, and the other is the lack of equipment. It is unusual to find science taught formally in 'secondary' schools under the Board's present Regulations before the age of 13, and if a course in science is intended to develop logical powers at least three years are required. The obstacle might, to some extent, be surmounted by beginning the science course in Modern Schools and Senior Classes on entrance into the school.

The special equipment required for the teaching of science hardly exists in many schools at the present time. This lack of equipment is largely due to the peculiar history of science teaching in elementary schools during the last five decades. When in the early seventies a systematic attempt was first made to introduce the study of science into elementary schools the

[page 221]

teaching largely took the form of 'object' and observation lessons, designed to link up certain scientific truths with everyday life. Courses in physiography, or the science of everyday life, were much in vogue, and experimental demonstrations were frequently given in the classroom. Later, from 1887 onwards, the theory was developed that no science was worth teaching unless it were based on the student's own experimental work, and demonstration was regarded as positively harmful. As however the method of experimental demonstration was the only way in which science could satisfactorily be taught in most primary schools, the science lessons gradually disappeared or were replaced by lessons on nature study, which were supposed to lend themselves to heuristic teaching [training children to find out for themselves]. Unfortunately, during this period, any science apparatus that had been provided in these schools was gradually broken up and was not replaced. The process was accelerated owing to the diminution in the number of evening classes held in the ordinary elementary schools, as under former Regulations science apparatus could often be requisitioned for evening classes, though not for the elementary day schools.

The period just before the war was marked by a series of attempts to co-ordinate handwork of all kinds with science. The pupils' knowledge of elementary science was to be applied to the affairs of everyday life through 'experiments in various types of machines and instruments, e.g. electric motors, lamps, simple forms of the camera'. This view was developed and advocated in several official publications. Attempts were made to develop this method by providing in a number of public elementary schools a practical workroom which served both for manual instruction and the teaching of elementary science, the underlying idea being that the pupils should receive as much as possible of their practical instruction in the school itself. Steps have also been taken to organise summer courses on the methods of science teaching specially suited for teachers in rural areas. Furthermore, some of the training colleges have developed courses in biology designed to assist students to understand the development of social hygiene.

We cannot, of course, attempt to indicate, except in the broadest outline, what should be included in the Science Syllabus for Modern Schools or Senior Classes. It is, however, safe to say that most schemes for courses in elementary science in Modern

[page 222]

Schools and Senior Classes might be grouped round a simple syllabus consisting of:

(i) The chemical and physical properties of air, water and some of the commoner elements and their compounds, the elements of meteorology and astronomy, based on simple observations, and the extraction of metals from their ores.
(ii) A carefully graduated course of instruction in elementary physics and simple mechanics, abundantly illustrated by means of easy experiments in light, heat, sound, and the various methods for the production and application of electricity.
(iii) A broad outline of the fundamental principles of biology, describing the properties of living matter, including food, the processes of reproduction and respiration, methods of assimilation in plants, the action of bacterial organisms and the like.
(iv) Instruction in elementary physiology and hygiene based on lessons in biology.

[page 223]

The lines and development of the syllabus would vary according to the type of school and the facilities afforded. Where a laboratory or a well equipped practical room, or both, are available, the pupils could work on a scheme involving the use of simple apparatus. They might also be encouraged to devise other equipment for themselves. Some of the simpler apparatus used, especially for demonstrations in elementary physics, might be made by the pupils as part of the course in woodwork and metalwork.

In Senior Classes where it may be impracticable, owing to financial reasons, to provide special or separate laboratories, a practical room should be made available, which should be a spacious room with flat tables, some of which should be easily moveable, fitted with cupboards and shelves on the walls for simple apparatus and reagents [reactive substances], and equipped with several sinks, a supply of water, and, where possible, gas and electric light. Such a room in rural senior schools might be and often is also used for manual instruction and cookery.

7. In Modern schools or Senior classes situated in districts with one industry or group of industries, special attention might be devoted to elementary physics and mechanics, and the lessons might be based upon machinery and equipment in use in the local industry. Thus the course in elementary physics and mechanics might aim generally at throwing light upon interesting phenomena of industrial life, explaining, e.g. how a steam engine, internal combustion engine, electric motor, or dynamo works, or how iron is obtained from its ores, care being taken that the study of these concrete objects leads to a real, if necessarily elementary, insight into scientific principles. The course in science might include some study of elementary geology, illustrated largely by the geology of the district.

In schools in agricultural districts the course in elementary physics and mechanics might be illustrated, in part at least, from reapers, binders, elevators, tractors and other examples of agricultural machinery, or again from mechanical churns, separators, honey extractors and the like. As a general rule, however, in country schools the science syllabus both for boys and girls might be largely based on biological interests, the study of elementary physics and chemistry being subsidiary, but arranged so as to supply the indispensable foundation for a

[page 224]

course in elementary biology with special reference to its bearing on horticulture and agriculture. We are disposed to think that in many schools in rural areas a large part of the science course might, with advantage, be planned on the general lines indicated in Sir Edward Russell's Lessons on Soil, with appropriate examples drawn largely from the local environment.

We suggest that science courses for girls in Modern Schools and Senior Classes should in their later stages frequently have a biological trend, though occasion should be taken to impart to the work much of the exactness and discipline of the experimental sciences and to train the girls in habits of careful observation and clear thinking. The work should not be confined to botany, as the study of simple forms of animal life can under a wise and skilful teacher be made an admirable means of widening and disciplining the pupil's sympathies, and giving her broad hygienic ideals and a knowledge of nature which may increase her happiness and her efficiency as a human being. The courses in science for girls should be brought into connection with the instruction in hygiene and in domestic subjects, more particularly housecraft. The teachers of science and domestic subjects should keep closely in touch and collaborate in drawing up their syllabuses in these subjects.

We regard it as especially important that instruction in elementary physiology and hygiene, developing out of the lessons in elementary biology, should be given to all boys and girls in Modern Schools and Senior Classes. Such instruction should be largely the practical outcome of a study of elementary biology, treated not as a series of classifications but as the study of the development of form and function in suitable types of plant and animal life, leading up to a study of how the human body is built up and how it works. Such instruction in biology and elementary physiology, if properly carried out, might well provide the basis for a right attitude to many social problems.

(a) Personal Hygiene - how to keep the human organism fit, with subsidiary lessons on the importance of fresh air, sunlight, exercise, rest and cleanliness.
(b) The Hygiene of the Home - with special reference to light, ventilation, sanitation, the proper care of food, and so forth.

[page 225]

(c) General Hygiene - which would include a brief account of the public health service, and the measures taken by public authorities to safeguard the health of the community.

Science courses for boys and girls who have been unable to keep pace with the more forward children, and have been placed in separate classes in non-selective Modern Schools and within Senior Classes, might be largely confined to elementary physics, with abundant illustrations showing the practical applications of the simple principles involved. It would seem on the whole inadvisable to teach more than the bare elements of chemistry to such children, as they would not probably, as a rule, have much aptitude for abstract thought. We think, however, that, with the general science course as a basis, the science teaching for such children should include a considerable element of elementary biology, which should be linked up with instruction in elementary physiology and hygiene on the lines indicated above. Incidentally, we desire to state that in our view the instruction in nature study and elements of science given in primary schools to the children below the age of 11 should not stop, as is often the case, at the age of 8+. Instruction in these subjects should proceed continuously up to the age of 11+, so that when children pass to a Modern School or Senior Class they will be in a better position to benefit by the course in science there given. The preparatory work done by the children up to the age of 11+ will best consist of nature study in the widest sense of that expression. The methods of study should be observational, and nothing should be included which could not be examined by the children themselves.

In general in Modern Schools and Senior Classes for boys the part of the science course which deals with elementary physics and chemistry should be brought into close relation with the courses in mathematics and handwork. Such correlation might well follow the lines indicated in Educational Pamphlet

(1) The Teaching of Infant Care and Management to schoolgirls (1925).

[page 226]

No. 36 (1) issued by the Board of Education. In the same way any lessons in the science course which deal with elementary biology and geology should be handled in such a way as to show their bearing on gardening, and, in schools with an agricultural bias, on agriculture generally.

The scientific section of the school library should contain some suitable publications, adapted for the use of young students, on the various branches of elementary science taught in the school. The pupils might be encouraged to use these publications as works of reference. It might also include some suitable books on the geology of the British Isles and on local geology, together with a few works on the local flora and fauna, if such exist, and a geological map of the district. In schools on or near the sea-board, a few marine charts might be added, together with some elementary works on such subjects as sea fisheries. The collection might also include a few well chosen works of a simple character on other branches of pure and applied science, e.g. astronomy, optics, wireless apparatus, the construction of motor cars, and so forth. In rural areas a few simple books on the application of science in agriculture might be added, together with some of the pamphlets on insect and vegetable pests published by the Board of Agriculture. The collection should also contain a few well chosen biographies of great men of science. Use might be made of the collections of scientific works and periodicals in municipal and county libraries.

In no subject has there been in the last half century a greater advance in the methods of teaching than in those of drawing and art. The greater respect now given to the subject is due in part to improved methods of teaching and in part to a realisation of its value in the study of other subjects. A further reason is a greater recognition of the importance to the whole community of a finer taste, not only or even chiefly in pictures and sculpture, but in architecture, in furniture, in household crafts. In the formation of such taste drawing must be one of the chief means.

(1) Some Experiments in the Teaching of Science and Handwork in certain Elementary Schools in London (1920) HMSO.

[page 227]

The above general remarks apply to all teaching, but they have a special application to the type of post-primary school which is the main subject of this report. Such schools, while not neglecting other sides, will be particularly concerned with the practical application of theoretical teaching. We cordially recognise that teachers are fully alive to the newer methods, but in view of the great development of Modern Schools which we hope and expect in the near future, we feel that suggestions as to the teaching of the subject in such schools will not be out of place.

Experience has shown that simple drawing is a subject in which almost every normal child, if properly taught, may attain a certain degree of proficiency. We therefore take it for granted that at the age of 11, when they enter Modern Schools of the type we have in mind, boys and girls will have acquired a reasonable proficiency in the use of pencil, brush, and possibly crayon, for the delineation of simple objects and the drawing of simple diagrams. The further development of this proficiency and experience in the Modern School will present two distinct aspects: the artistic and the utilitarian. On the artistic side, drawing and painting may be studied wholly for their own sake, as affording to the pupil a mode of self-expression and a means of interpreting his appreciation of what he sees in the world around him. The lines along which this development should take place are well established, and we think well understood, and a detailed consideration of them is hardly necessary in this report. While, therefore, we fully appreciate the great importance of this aspect of the study of art, we propose to confine our remarks rather to the application of drawing to those branches of the work of a Modern School which in our view should be characteristic of such a school. From this point of view, some practical skill in drawing forms a valuable and indeed an indispensable adjunct to the study of various branches of the curriculum, such as woodwork and metalwork, elementary geometry, elementary science, particularly nature study, biology and mechanics, geography and history. In such subjects, drawing is of value, not only as a means of recording what is seen and in so doing strengthening the pupil's powers of accurate observation of detail, but also as a means of training the pupil to appreciate the significance of diagrams, pictures, maps and plans in the textbooks and works of reference which he uses for the various branches of the curriculum.

[page 228]

The main divisions into which the teaching of drawing falls are as follows:

(i) Object drawing, including the drawing not only of artificial objects but also of natural objects in monochrome and colour, with various media, e.g. pencil, pastel, paint;
(ii) Memory drawing; illustrative and imaginative work;
(iii) Geometrical and mechanical drawing;
(iv) Design.

Object drawing must be included in any course. It is in fact the foundation on which the other divisions of the course of drawing rest. The scheme in object drawing should be based on a carefully graded sequence, and its general aim should be to obtain, first, correct form, and then fuller representation of the object, by means of light and shade. The course, as was mentioned above, will include the representation, not only of natural objects such as are likely to be studied in the lessons on nature study, biology, etc., but also objects such as those which will be met with by the pupils in their science and handicraft lessons. In this connection special emphasis should be laid on accurate and detailed delineation, sometimes in diagrammatic form.

All these exercises will afford opportunities for memory drawing, the value of which can hardly be overestimated, and will lead naturally to the beginnings of imaginative drawing and of illustrative drawing in connection with such subjects as history. Many pupils quickly show a taste for and develop skill in this particular type of work. Such taste should be encouraged, and much work of this kind will often be done voluntarily out of school hours in connection with school art clubs. The common sense and experience of the teacher will be the best guide as to how far and in what directions this part of the teaching in drawing should be developed.

At the same time as the pupils are gathering in their power of more or less accurate representation of objects placed before

[page 229]

them, they will need to be trained in the use of drawing as a means of guiding construction in the handicraft lessons. Freehand dimensioned sketches to show the method of construction of simple objects will be used as the basis for making proper scale drawings, and the pupil will learn to use mathematical instruments for the production of the drawings to be used by him in his handicraft work. In schools with an industrial bias in the last two years, or other schools in which considerable prominence is given to craft work, geometrical and mechanical drawing will naturally take a prominent place, and it is hardly necessary to add that this part of the work will be closely associated with the scheme of handicraft which is in force.

The fourth division of drawing is in a sense a combination of the last two referred to above. Successful design involves not only imagination in adapting known forms to the particular purpose, whether it be by way of embellishment or of construction, for which the design is intended, but also precision and accuracy in setting out the design in the manner in which it can best be reproduced in the article to be decorated or constructed. It is clear that only a teacher who himself possesses a practical knowledge of some branch of artistic craft can properly teach principles of design, and he will naturally frame his course according to his own knowledge. The crafts in connection with which design can be taught are far too numerous for detailed mention, but we may by way of illustration say that very successful work has been done in designing for flat surface, decoration for lamp shades, wall papers, printed fabrics; in title pages of books, embroidery, posters; in lettering and book decoration; and, on the constructional side, in designing simple articles for use in the home which can be made in the woodwork or metalwork rooms and centres. Teachers who are familiar with such crafts as woodcarving or repousse work [metal beating] will naturally introduce plastic work in clay, etc., in evolving designs for such crafts. We wish to emphasise the value of the study of books, as well as of the study of examples in museums and art galleries, in connection particularly with the course of design. The best originals are usually out of reach of pupils, but for the most part illustrations in books are a very satisfactory substitute. Such a course should improve the taste of students in matters of art, and generally help them to attain a better standard of artistic appreciation, especially in regard to the decoration of the home.

[page 230]

We have space only for the briefest reference to the importance of school art clubs, sketching expeditions, and the like, which will be arranged by teachers where circumstances are suitable. Experienced teachers will realise that the suggestions made in preceding paragraphs by no means exhaust the possibility of this subject, both for its own sake and in its application to other branches of the curriculum. We wish, however, to suggest that in our view the art room should be regarded as a workshop, sometimes used for class instruction, at other times for groups of pupils doing different kinds of work according to their tastes and abilities, but always as a place where under the inspiration and guidance of the teachers the pupils may acquire manipulative skill and learn to apply that skill in the direction which appeals to each individual student.

The consideration of the application of the art teaching to other subjects of the curriculum leads naturally to a discussion of the type of practical instruction (1) which is likely to be found useful in Modern Schools and Senior Classes. We desire to link this subject closely to drawing and applied art, because in all its branches there is or might be a close connection with art. We are anxious, moreover, to break down the notion still widely prevalent that art is a mere embellishment rather than one of the necessary foundations of sound craftsmanship.

(1) The Education Act 1918, Section 2(1)(a), as re-enacted in the Education Act 1921, Section 20, imposes on Local Education Authorities the obligation to include in the curriculum of Public Elementary Schools at appropriate stages 'practical instruction' suitable to the ages, abilities, and requirements of the children. The importance of manual activities has long been recognised, and as we have shown in Chapter I, practical work of various kinds formed an integral part of the courses of study in 'schools of industry', and in some of the elementary schools modelled on them.
The expression 'practical instruction' is defined in Section 170(4) of the Education Act 1921 as meaning instruction in cookery, laundrywork, housewifery, dairywork, handicrafts and gardening, and such other subjects as the Board of Education declare to be subjects of practical instruction. In particular most Central Schools established up to the present time have made provision for instruction in woodwork and in some cases also in metalwork for boys, and in domestic subjects for girls. In addition to this, a large number of schools, particularly those in rural and suburban areas, have made arrangements for instruction in gardening. A few schools giving 'courses of advanced instruction' have provided some training in artistic crafts for the girls, usually in needlework or leatherwork.

[page 231]

The importance of practical instruction for older children is now generally recognised. It has often been pointed out, and with considerable reason, that many children benefit from handicraft lessons who have not hitherto made any very noticeable progress in the ordinary school work, and it has been found that the added self-respect due to ability in handicraft has led to more interest and effort in other branches of the school work. Again, it is beyond doubt that pupils who are nearing the time when they are to leave school and go out into the world of commerce or industry take much keener interest in those parts of their work which appeal to them as having a close and immediate connection with real life than in the more academic subjects of the curriculum. Finally, the various branches of practical instruction, both for boys and girls, afford abundant opportunities for training in self-help and for co-operation and team work. One of our witnesses gave us an interesting description of the work done in some recently established rural Central Schools, where admirable results had been achieved by supplying raw material and allowing the pupils to make some of the apparatus and equipment required for the schools. The boys, for example, not only produced vegetables and fruit, but made garden tools and sheds, while the girls on their part cooked the midday meal and made some of the clothing worn for games. These activities were, so far as possible, linked up with other subjects of the curriculum, such as science, elementary mathematics, and drawing. It was pointed out that co-operative activities of this character had brought the children to realise that the schoolwork was well worth doing for its own sake, and that education was real. We believe, accordingly, that practical instruction will naturally take a prominent place in Modern Schools and Senior Classes, both because the pupils in those schools are likely in the nature of things to be predominantly of a practical rather than of a literary bent, and because the work in the last years of the course is intended to lead naturally to the entry of the pupils into the world of business and industry.

In Modern Schools and, when possible, also in Senior Classes for pupils above the age of 11+, special rooms for practical instruction should be provided - woodwork and, where possible, metalwork rooms for boys, and housecraft rooms for girls. We recognise, however, that for financial and other reasons, it will be necessary for some time in many cases to give a large part of

[page 232]

the practical instruction in centres. In rural schools and in urban schools where gardens are provided, practical instruction should be associated with the work in gardening, and in many post-primary schools provision might also be made for instruction in crafts of different types. The equipment need not be elaborate, but should be good enough to enable the pupils to produce specimens of simple but sound craftsmanship. It is disheartening and unsatisfactory for them to try to make things which they cannot make well, or for which they have not adequate tools.

With regard to teaching staff, we would only say here that the provision of a sufficient number of teachers with the craftsman's outlook and the craftsman's interest is, to our mind, one of the most difficult problems which will have to be faced in the development of schools of the type we have in mind. We discuss in the chapter on Staffing the steps which might be taken to meet this obvious need.

Courses in woodwork and metalwork are, as a rule, designed primarily for boys, while housecraft and needlework are regarded as the most important branches of practical instruction for girls. While this is a natural distinction to make, we feel that it is important for girls as well as boys to learn something of the use of tools and to be able to do small repairs in the home, and any girls who displayed special taste and aptitude for woodwork and metalwork might, with advantage, be allowed to take a short course in these branches of handicraft.

Up to the present, the handicraft instruction in public elementary schools has been chiefly carried out in wood. There is now, however, a tendency to teach boys to handle other materials, particularly metal, and separate courses in metalwork as well as combined courses of woodwork and metalwork have in many cases been developed to a high degree of interest and efficiency. Such courses, especially in schools with a slight industrial bias, might include the making of electrical and other scientific apparatus, mechanical working models, and scale models and illustrative models of simple machines used in the various staple industries.

In country areas, the handicraft might be related to agriculture and its ancillary industries. The woodwork might be simpler in type than that which is attempted in urban schools,

[page 233]

and articles such as hen-coops, trap-nests and bee-skeps [bee hives], garden frames, seed and fruit storage boxes, as well as smaller articles for use in the school garden, might well be made. The metalwork might be concerned largely with the making and repair of the simple tools of husbandry, and particularly with the repair of the numerous metal appliances (hinges, catches, and so forth) used in gardens and farms. In connection with the nature study and rural science lessons such things as collecting boxes, aquaria, and measuring and calculating devices, would form suitable models for the handicraft course.

In all such courses, both in urban and rural schools, emphasis should be laid on the artistic aspect of the work, which should be closely linked up with the courses in drawing and applied art. Numerous opportunities will offer themselves for showing the pupils that articles in common use, such as household furniture, need not necessarily be ugly because they are designed for practical purposes. In this way, much might be done gradually to raise the level of taste in matters of household decoration throughout the country.

We have already pointed out that too rigid a distinction should not necessarily be made between the type of handicraft suitable for boys and that suitable for girls. Much of the time assigned to handwork will necessarily, however, be spent by the girls on needlecraft of different kinds - the designing, cutting out and making of garments, mending, and embroidery. In addition, they should be given opportunities for practising some of the various artistic crafts, such as leatherwork, bookbinding, basketry, the staining and painting of white wood, stencilling, and where conditions are suitable pottery, enamelling and weaving. It is important for girls, as well as boys, to develop while at school tastes for occupations that they can practise in their leisure time in later life.

There is one further aspect of the handicraft teaching of which we would make passing mention. In the rapid development of industry from handwork to repetitive machine work, workmen are in some danger of losing their training as craftsmen except in one particular and narrow field. Concurrent with this tendency is the lessening of the hours of labour and the consequent increase of the hours of leisure. The school training in handwork

[page 234]

should, to some extent, counteract this loss of interest in craftsmanship by suggesting to the pupils interesting and profitable hobbies for their spare time after they leave school. Their work in the art room will, we hope, have awakened their interest in various artistic crafts, which, even if they are of no immediate value as a means of livelihood, might still be developed as hobbies and in the handicraft rooms they should have opportunities of learning the processes involved in these crafts.

Instruction in housecraft possesses a definite educational value, not unlike that of the various forms of handicraft for boys, but more important in its practical bearing. We consider that courses in housecraft should be planned so as to render girls fit on leaving school to undertake intelligently the various household duties which devolve on most women. The courses should be arranged in such a way as to make the girls realise clearly that due thought for themselves and their homes is essential to health and that an ordered knowledge of home management will increase the general well-being and comfort of themselves and of every member of the household. They should also be shown that on efficient care and management of the home depend the health, happiness and prosperity of the nation. Distaste for the work of the home has arisen, in great measure, from the fact that housecraft has not been generally regarded as a skilled occupation for which definite training is essential, and it has too often been practised by those who, through lack of training or through undeveloped intelligence, have been incapable of performing it efficiently and of commanding the respect of their fellows. Greater efficiency in the housewife would go far to raise her status in the estimation of the community. Trained intelligence combined with technical skill would develop in her a sense of proportion and enable her to economise time; it would prevent her from sinking into the domestic drudge, without leisure for the discharge of civic responsibilities and for social intercourse, or taste for any form of literature, music and art. The housecraft work should form an integral part of the whole school organisation and life, and the pupils and their teacher should take an active share, so far as they are able, in conserving and adding to the amenities of the school. The daily conduct of the school should bear out and illustrate what is taught in the housecraft lessons. Several

[page 235]

witnesses pointed out that it is a mistake to suppose that housecraft subjects appeal to every girl. In point of fact, a teacher of real power, sympathy and skill is required to arouse the interest of many girls of thirteen to fifteen in domestic subjects. This is largely due to the fact that the girls sometimes come from homes where they have to do so much household work with inadequate equipment and materials that the subject has lost its freshness and interest. It is, therefore, essential to present it to such girls in an attractive manner. To associate it, especially in rural schools, with definite instruction in activities carried on outside but near the home, such as vegetable and fruit growing, bee and poultry keeping, dairying, etc. would lend it new freshness and interest.

We agree with most of our witnesses in holding that courses in housecraft should, as a rule, comprise cookery, laundrywork and housewifery, together with some instruction in the use of tools and repairs to household equipment and furniture, and should aim at providing a thorough all-round training in domestic duties. Attention might, with advantage, be paid to aesthetic as well as to purely practical considerations in regard to household fittings, equipment and furniture. The courses should include instruction in first aid, home nursing, and the care of young children. Any such teaching should be brought into close connection with the lessons in elementary science (especially biology) and hygiene.

In the several branches of the subject the equipment and fittings used should be similar to those likely to be found in the girls' own homes, but they should include some of the less costly labour-saving devices which are from time to time available. In cookery, the general aim should be to provide practical instruction in the choice and preparation of the food required for a simple wholesome diet, with due regard to home conditions and the need for economy. Sound teaching on food values is therefore essential. Lessons might also be given on such subjects as the best means of preserving fruit and vegetables.

The time assigned to housecraft in the three or four years' course in post-primary schools and the distribution of the time must necessarily vary according to the environment and the special trend, if any, in the curriculum for pupils over the age of thirteen. In some schools, for example, it may be found advantageous to concentrate the lessons in two or three years of

[page 236]

the course. In such cases the exact years in which housecraft is taught may well be left to the discretion of the headmistress of the school.

We consider that in Modern Schools with a bias towards home management it should easily be possible to plan valuable courses in housecraft and handwork for girls which could be closely linked up with the lessons in science and hygiene. Preliminary courses in housecraft might be arranged for the first two years of the course, and in the third and fourth years the lessons could be planned so as to include many matters which have a bearing on house management, such as the methods for the supply of water, gas and electricity, the disposal of refuse, the usual arrangement of rooms in smaller houses and the best way of making use of limited accommodation. In some schools it might be found practicable for the girls to take in their fourth year an intensive course in household management for a month or six weeks in a small house or flat provided by the school authorities for the purpose.

In Modern Schools for girls with an 'industrial' bent in the direction of dressmaking, millinery, artistic embroidery and the like, needlecraft of various kinds would form the most important element in the course. The other housecraft subjects would not be neglected, but less time would necessarily be given to them. This would be the case, also, in schools with a 'commercial' bias.

In a large number of Senior Classes the instruction in housecraft would be given, not in the school itself, but in a centre for combined domestic subjects. We think that in many such instances the work in housecraft might be arranged, as is often done at present, on a whole day basis with perhaps an intensive course taken in the last year at a house or flat for combined domestic subjects.

In connection with housecraft, as with other forms of handicraft, girls should be encouraged to consult books. Some books of reference both for the teacher and the girls should be provided, as well as textbooks and recipe-books in the different branches of the subject.

Housecraft is a wide, ever-growing subject, and the full need for Instruction in it is realised only when girls are faced with the responsibility of keeping house. The attention of girls who are

[page 237]

leaving school might therefore with advantage be called to any courses in cookery and other domestic subjects provided in local technical institutes and classes, or in rural areas, and to similar classes organised by the local Women's Institutes.

There has been a tendency in the past to regard gardening as particularly appropriate to rural schools, and handicraft as suited mainly for urban schools - a fallacious distinction resting only on expediency. We realise indeed that in many neighbourhoods it is difficult to provide school gardens, and that in some towns the difficulties are insuperable; but we regard gardening as an important branch of practical instruction, and we hope that wherever possible school gardens will be provided and that urban education authorities will realise more and more the importance of providing suitable spaces which might be used for the purpose by post-primary schools in towns. In this connection, we think that consideration might be given to the desirability of utilising portions of public open spaces for school gardens. We regard it as most desirable that, where possible, all pupils in post-primary schools between the ages of 11+ and 14+ or 15+, whether in town or country, should have opportunities for gardening, and we observe that, in a recent Circular on Rural Education (Circular No. 1365), the Board stated that gardening should be taught, if possible, to all senior children. It is particularly important that gardening should be included in the curriculum of a Modern School or Senior Class which may be actually situated in a town but draws a considerable proportion of its pupils from contributory elementary schools in surrounding country districts.

The teaching of gardening has been discussed very fully in several recent official publications, particularly in the revised edition of the Board's Suggestions for the consideration of teachers and others concerned in the work of Public Elementary Schools. We will, therefore, confine ourselves to making a few recommendations bearing on this branch of practical work which have emerged in the course of our present inquiry. In the first place, we consider that the courses in gardening should be associated with the lessons in elementary biology, in the same way as courses in handwork should be correlated with the instruction in elementary physics and mechanics. Throughout the gardening

[page 238]

course, the principles which regulate the various practical operations should be fully discussed by the teacher with the classes as the work proceeds, and pupils should be encouraged to record conclusions arrived at in their notebooks. The teacher might spend part of each gardening lesson in hearing the pupils express their views about some portion of the work in hand, and for this reason it is not desirable that the classes should be burdened with an excessive amount of practical work in a very large garden. On the other hand, the work done in the school garden, though connected with the lessons in elementary biology, should also have a local colour which would stimulate the interest of the pupils. For example, some of the vegetables grown might be those which are usually cultivated in local allotments, and any instruction given regarding insect and vegetable pests, diseases of crops, and the like, should have some bearing on local conditions. In post-primary schools in rural areas where it is desired to give a slight agricultural bent to the curriculum, special attention might be devoted during the last two years of the course to horticulture, in association with the lessons in elementary science bearing on agriculture.

We would urge that in mixed Modern Schools and Senior Classes any girls who desire to take the course in gardening should be afforded full facilities for doing so, as is indeed already done in many schools.

The aim of music teaching considered as part of a school curriculum should be rather the cultivation of a taste than the acquirement of a proficiency; it should lay the foundation for intelligent study and enjoyment of music in after life. Solo singing should not be taught, because among other reasons it puts too heavy a strain on the adolescent voice; solo playing should be restricted to those cases where there is evidence of real keenness and aptitude. Music should be made a corporate activity in which, so far as possible, the whole school may share.

It is certainly advisable that the teaching should be in the hands of one expert instructor, with such assistance as may be necessary in the case of a big school. It is most desirable that this instructor should be not a visiting teacher but a member of the permanent staff, who would share to the full the position and responsibilities of his colleagues. This does not necessarily

[page 239]

mean that he should teach music alone (in a large majority of cases this would be impracticable) but rather that among the qualifications of at least one class teacher should be included a knowledge of music and a capacity for teaching it.

We may assume that the children come on from the elementary school having already had some experience of chorus singing, some practice in voice production and some opportunities of hearing good music. In many cities, children's concerts have been organised with excellent effect; in many schools it has been found possible to set aside some short period of time every week at which the children should have the opportunity of listening to music - pianoforte or gramophone - with a few words of explanation on the structure of the pieces. It cannot be too strongly emphasised, both here and through the rest of the musical curriculum, (i) that no music should be admitted which is not first-rate of its kind; and (ii) that the kind should be determined in close relation to the age and inexperience of the listeners. Children, for example, find it difficult to keep their attention fixed on a long and abstract piece of instrumental music, and it should be remembered that as soon as the attention flags the meaning evaporates. If, in addition to this, the children can be taught in the elementary schools the first rudiments of notation, sight-reading, etc., so much the better; if not, these must be undertaken in the lower forms of the post-primary school.

The first suggestion which may be made is that on every day of school attendance there should be ten minutes' choral singing, either by classes or preferably by the whole school together. If possible, it should take place at the beginning of the morning session, but the actual time might be determined so as to fit in with the general convenience of the school. The time expended will be far more than repaid by the better sense of discipline and the greater alertness of mind which will be developed and encouraged. 'The chief advantage of singing,' an eminent prima donna once said, 'is that you cannot be out of temper while you are doing it'; and although this may be considered an accessory rather than an essential of the art, it is one which all who have to do with discipline might very well bear in mind. For the lower forms of the school the songs should be chosen principally out of good national song books; in the upper forms other anthologies might be used, such as Dr Arthur Somervell's 'Golden Treasury'. Care should be exercised throughout that the songs should

[page 240]

be of the highest quality and that they should appeal to the melodic and especially to the rhythmic sense of the children. Recent experience has shown that this can be effected without difficulty and with admirable results. Schools which, a few years ago, were singing deplorable little ditties, written, apparently, for the purpose of being introduced into school books and equally devoid of melody and of meaning, are now singing 'The Vicar of Bray' and Cecil Sharp's folk songs and Parry's 'Jerusalem' to their great and lasting advantage. They sang the bad music, not because they preferred it, but because they knew no other. In every field of art, and perhaps more in music than in any other, the reverse of Gresham's law prevails and the good drives out the bad.

In addition to the choral singing there should be, if possible, two periods a week devoted to musical instruction. One of these should deal with sight-reading and particularly with musical dictation, with such developments and expansions of this as the teacher may find time or opportunity to pursue. Every child who passes through a post-primary school should be able to read staff notation; the earlier he begins the better, for the less chance will he have had of hearing that it is a difficult and recondite process. To read a single line of melody is in no way more difficult than to read a single line of verse; the notation has to be learnt in each case, and that is all. To read a passage in four part harmony requires a little more practice, and so the task may increase in complexity until, as in the case of some modern orchestral scores, it is as hard as Browning's 'Sordello' or Lycophron's 'Alexandra'. But all the early stages of sight reading lie well within the attainment of normal children. The examples of musical dictation which one may see now in many schools of the country are in themselves sufficiently encouraging. In the lower forms of the school this lesson should probably be confined to sight reading and to points of notation and other rudiments; further up the school the reading lesson will become more elaborate, and the children may be taught to write a little without dictation. Sir Walford Davies has discovered an astonishing capacity for melody among the children of the Welsh schools, and those pupils who have any desire or aptitude may well be started on a very elementary course of harmonisation. In any case this period should be devoted to the technical side of music, humanised as much as possible, and where possible

[page 241]

related to the poetic forms which are studied in the literature lesson.

The other period should be devoted to the child as listener, to lectures on the nature and construction of music, in which the explanations should be brief and the illustrations abundant. These could be given by teachers in the school who could sing or play the pianoforte or violin, or in place of these, or at any rate in supplement to them, by gramophones with carefully selected records. Here again the teacher will need a great deal of tact and judgement in the selection of pieces. Emerson's rule, 'Never read anything that you do not enjoy' is very applicable to school music, and tastes can be met without any danger of tampering with the standard of excellence. National songs of all countries, melodies of Handel and Bach, of Beethoven and Schubert, the lyric of Schumann, the best of Mendelssohn's 'Songs without Words'; all these might serve at the beginning and be succeeded in due course by movements of sonatas, symphonies, quartets, classical songs, excerpts from oratorios and cantatas, and scenes from operas. There should be, in short, the same latitude in the choice of music as in the choice of poetry and the same adherence to the very best. It is hardly necessary to add that the lectures and explanations should deal with the inherent structure and style of the music, not, as is sometimes done, with fancied analogies between it and some outside fact of nature or experience. Attempts to translate music into any medium other than itself may sometimes be fanciful and amusing, but they are mostly misleading and always inadequate. At the same time, a good deal of interest may be roused by some account of the composer and especially of his relation to his contemporaries and his predecessors. In supplement to this there should be a music section in each school library containing not only such compositions as may be needed for purposes of study, but at least one general reference book, and some short and simple work on musical history and biography which the children can read for themselves or which can be made on occasion the subject of more formal study. Parry's 'Studies of the Great Composers', which was written for a girls' school, is an excellent instance, and other works have been written since on the same lines.

When possible, school orchestras, string and pianoforte, might well be instituted. They are excellent forms of musical activity, and there is plenty of first rate music, original or

[page 242]

adapted, for them to play. Some centres have, with good results, established combined orchestras of players selected from different schools, but in many districts this may have to be deferred until the more fundamental work indicated above has been accomplished.

A valuable co-ordination of music with physical exercises is afforded by the study of eurythmics, which not only cultivates brain and muscle, but develops new possibilities of rhythmic movement. Indeed, it is probable that all forms of massed gymnastic exercises gain by association with music properly selected and adapted for the purpose; for although musical rhythm can be far more varied and complicated than any kind of muscular activity, yet within limits they may be made exactly to correspond, and under the influence of eurythmics and similar studies, these limits are continually widening.

Within the next few years there is likely to be a considerable development of broadcasting, especially in its educational work; and this, if proper use be made of it, will greatly facilitate the study of music in schools. Already there are educational lectures on the rudiments of musical style and construction given by men of acknowledged pre-eminence, illustrated by appropriate examples and circulated throughout the country. There is every hope that in course of time a considerable number of schools will avail themselves of this opportunity.

The technical aspect of music should by no means be neglected; there can be no understanding of any subject without some knowledge of its technique. But it should at this age be subordinated to the human delight in beautiful sound, which is the basis and foundation of all music. If the children leave school with their memories full of fine tunes and their ambitions roused for further study and exploration, then the school will have done a great deal for their musical training. If, in addition to this, they carry away, as is quite possible, some intelligent knowledge of musical history and some apprehension of the principles of musical structure, then the place of music in a school education will be amply vindicated.

The purpose and object of physical education is not merely to improve the physical condition of the children and to secure the full development of their health and strength, but also to

[page 243]

aid in the development of their mental powers and in the formation of character. Physical education, therefore, has a physical effect on the body and an educational effect on the mind. The physical result includes the influence on the general physique and nutrition of the body, the prevention or correction of faulty action or attitude of the body or of any part of it, and the development of the neuro-muscular system. The educational result should be the acquisition of habits of discipline, obedience, ready response and self-control.

The phrase 'physical education' includes systematic physical exercises such as are described in the Board's 'Syllabus of Physical Training for Elementary Schools', games and athletic sports, folk dancing, swimming, and indeed all physical activities which help to produce a sound and healthy constitution. No one form is wholly sufficient in itself to produce the desired result; each is useful for its own peculiar effects, but needs to be supplemented and completed by the others. The systematic physical exercises are used for the purpose of securing certain definite effects, and these effects can be more or less exactly controlled. The physical results of games and sports cannot be thus controlled; and indeed most games and sports, while contributing largely towards general health and fitness, tend to produce a rather ill-balanced development of the body, and require to be supplemented by systematic physical exercises. Games, however, hold a pre-eminent place in physical education as a means to the development of character and of the social virtues.

Systematic physical exercises, again, by establishing the co-ordinations required for ease and grace of movement and posture, lay a foundation for folk dancing, the artistic value of which enriches and completes the results of physical training. It is here that physical movement and music come together in an art which is of service to both.

The results obtainable from systematic physical training can be achieved only by the appropriate application of a graded system of exercises based on the principles of physiology and designed to suit the age, capacity and physical needs of each pupil. The Board's 'Syllabus of Physical Training for Elementary Schools' is designed for children between the ages of 5 and 14. As Elementary schools do not possess

[page 244]

gymnasia or employ teachers expertly trained in this subject, the system is limited to free exercises, group games, etc., which do not require special apparatus and can be carried out in the school playground or assembly hall. These exercises are arranged in 'tables' or lesson programmes which the teachers are expected to follow, and wherein the principles governing the selection and arrangement of the exercises have already been applied for them. We understand that the exercises included in this syllabus have been chosen so as to ensure that they will be well within the capacity of all normally healthy children of the ages for which they are designed. Suitability for physical education will depend on the stage of physiological development, and particularly of neuro-muscular development, attained by the children. It is rather in the application of the exercises, i.e. in the degree of force expected in their performance, their duration, etc., that the training is differentiated in accordance with the special needs of any particular type of children; and this is a matter for the teacher, who alone can determine the pupil's needs from direct observation.

The Board intends shortly to publish a reference book of Gymnastic Training for Boys' Schools other than Elementary, in which provision has been made equally for schools with gymnasia and schools without gymnasia, so that whatever apparatus is available may be employed to full advantage; or a course depending on free exercises alone may be followed if there be no apparatus. The book does not give definite courses of training similar to the 'tables' of the syllabus, but sets out the material suitable for the successive stages of the boys' development, and gives full directions for the selection and arrangement of exercises to suit any particular set of conditions. Courses are arranged as a continuation of the elementary school course from the point which the boys have reached when they leave the elementary school, and in order to cover all possible future requirements, they provide for a continuously progressive training up to the age of 18. Boys going to Modern Schools which possess gymnasia will be able to start immediately with the free and apparatus exercises appropriate to their age group; or if no apparatus is available and it is preferred to continue with the Board's Elementary School Syllabus until the boys reach the age of 14, the subsequent training can be based on the material provided for the further training of boys who have completed the elementary school course.

[page 245]

The physical training of girls in schools other than primary schools is a rather different problem from that of boys, because it is comparatively easy to obtain the services of a trained woman teacher, whereas there are few men in the country who have had a complete training in the subject. It has not, therefore, been necessary for the Board to provide a general reference book for the girls' schools, but we understand that the Board will shortly issue a scheme of training in continuation of the elementary school course for older girls up to the age of 16, in which provision is made for the use of simple apparatus if such be available. This scheme, together with the Board's syllabus, would appear to meet the needs of post-primary schools for girls. From 11+ onwards, boys should if possible be taught by men and girls by women.

The art of teaching physical exercises cannot be learnt from books alone, and the Board's Syllabus presupposes a measure of training on the part of the teachers who are to use them. The teacher requires to have a sufficient knowledge of the general principles of physical training and of its practical conduct to be able to apply the exercises in accordance with the children's needs. Training in the Board's syllabus is provided for elementary school teachers in their training colleges and by means of sessional and vacation courses.

We consider it desirable that teachers of Physical Exercises should have undergone some course of training. It is much to be hoped that more adequate provision (similar to that which now exists for women teachers) will soon be made for the full training of male teachers of Physical Exercises.

It is generally admitted that games have an educational as well as a recreative use. They encourage and develop self-reliance, team work, loyalty, self-restraint, and resourcefulness. The weak point in games is that they often benefit most the strongest and healthiest pupils, who require them least. The others are apt to take no part and become mere spectators. If therefore the full benefit is to be obtained from games, they demand constant watchfulness and supervision. This, however, does not mean that the teacher should organise and manage the games. In fact, we would strongly deprecate this. It is far better that the organisation of the games should be carried out by the pupils themselves, who will thus appreciate them more and

[page 246]

derive more spontaneous pleasure and more educational value from them. Nevertheless, the teacher should on occasion be present so as to be in a position to give general advice. Members of the ordinary staff who have an interest in their pupils and a belief in the value of games can render most valuable service as indeed they often do in many Central Schools at the present time. Indeed, one of the chief advantages of games lies in the intermingling of members of the staff and pupils under less formal conditions than prevail in the classroom, and the observation of pupils from a different angle. It is of the first importance that playing fields should be available. Where possible, every Modern School should have a playing field of its own, especially in large towns, but we think that in crowded areas a playing field should be provided for a group of several schools in a district, each having the right to the use of the ground on stated days or at stated times.

There is one element in the school life that cannot be represented in any suggestions made as to curricula. No matter how cunningly and how thoroughly schemes for teaching mathematics, science, modern languages, English, or any other subject be devised, the effect on the school as a whole will be a failure unless thought is given to the life of the pupils outside the actual lessons.

The boys and girls should be encouraged to control and inspire one another in all the subtle ways that suggest themselves to sympathetic teachers, and means should be devised for creating a specific and close relationship between the interests of the younger and those of the older pupils. From the younger pupils too much must not be expected in the matter of responsibility, but there may be a beginning, even with the youngest, and towards the end of a child's career opportunities should be increased. In this way much of the discipline of the form-room, passages, playground, entertainments, can be left to the pupils themselves. Games, plays, concerts, every form of social activity, call for organisation, and this organisation should not be done, even though it can be most easily done, by the staff of the school. A boy or girl will have missed much of the value of school life unless he or she has had many opportunities of making mistakes. It is far better that a cricket match should

[page 247]

be lost, or a concert have a hitch in it, than that the over-zealous watchfulness of the teachers should leave nothing to the initiative of the taught. It is far easier for the teacher to interfere too much than to stand aside and watch, only taking a hand himself to avert serious catastrophe. There should be small catastrophes if the proper training is to be given.

This warning does not mean that teachers will not have to be unselfish in giving up time to the out-of-school activities; it does mean that they should be advisers rather than organisers, and never save themselves trouble by doing themselves what might be done by the pupils. The extent to which the pupils can organise things themselves and can assume responsibility will depend upon a number of circumstances; two of the most important being the type of child and age of the older scholars. But in every case the aim of the teacher should be to help the pupils to organise as many of their out-of-school activities as possible and to carry as much responsibility as is compatible with their age and experience.

It is also most important to enlist the sympathy of the parents in all out-of-school activities. These are sure to encroach upon the free time of the pupil, possibly to disturb his domestic arrangements, and for this considerable allowance needs to be made in any organisation. Without the parents' sympathy they will wither; with the parents' encouragements they will cease to be irksome. No attempt should be made to create an unwholesome public interest in such activities; too much cannot be done to enlist parental interest.

It is not wise to attempt to define the future development of all corporate activities; this may well transcend our present experience. But there will be no future for them at all unless from the first the necessity of adequate playing fields be recognised, and the premises of the school be available out of school hours for meetings of societies and concerts, and for the reunion of past members of the school. To use the premises of the day school for evening school work seems an economical device; in reality, if it involves the sacrifice of any profitable activities of the day school, it is very extravagant.