Hadow (1926)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Membership, Analysis, Preface, Introduction
Chapter 1 Development of post-primary education in England and Wales 1800-1918
Chapter 2 The facts of the present situation
Chapter 3 The lines of advance
Chapter 4 Curricula for Modern Schools and Senior Classes
Chapter 5 The place of 'bias' in the curriculum of Modern Schools and Senior Classes
Chapter 6 The staffing and equipment of Modern Schools and Senior Classes
Chapter 7 The admission of children to Modern Schools and Senior Schools
Chapter 8 The lengthening of school life
Chapter 9 The question of a leaving examination
Chapter 10 Administrative problems
Chapter 11 Conclusions and recommendations; Notes of reservation
Chapter 12 Suggestions on the curriculum in Modern Schools and Senior Classes
Appendix I List of witnesses
Appendix II Notes on nomenclature
Appendix III Statistics relating to Chapter 2(ii)
Appendix IV Post-primary education abroad
Appendix V List of publications
Index

London: HM Stationery Office

Chapter 11 Summary of principal conclusions and recommendations
[pages 172 - 188]

Our conclusions and recommendations are as follows:

The nature of the problem

1. The problem of providing full-time post-primary education for children between 11 and 15 years of age, who are not proceeding to 'secondary' schools in the narrower sense of the word, is neither new nor confined to England and Wales. It has made itself felt in this country since the beginnings of public elementary education, and has produced a variety of experiments of which the central schools are the latest example; while it has also been the subject of much attention in Scotland, in some of the States and Provinces of the Dominions, in various parts of the United States of America, and in several European countries. In recent years, however, the question has assumed special prominence for the reasons given in the text of our report. (Chapters 1 and 2 and Appendices II and IV.)

The need for a universal system of post-primary education

2. The experience already gained as a result of the work done in central schools, junior technical schools, and the senior classes of elementary schools justifies the conclusion that, both on educational and on social grounds, it is of urgent importance to ensure that, with due allowance for the varying requirements of different pupils, some form of post-primary education should be made available for all normal children between the ages of 11 and 14, and, as soon as possible, 11 and 15. Progress must necessarily be tentative and experimental, but the objective - a universal system of post-primary education - should be held clearly in view, and the measures necessary to attain it should go steadily forward. (Chapters 2 and 3)

The general scheme of post-primary education

3. Primary education should be regarded as ending at about the age of 11+. A second stage should then begin, and this stage, which for many pupils would end at 16+, for some at 18 or 19, but for the majority at 14+ or 15+, should, as far as possible, be regarded as a single whole, within which there will be a variety of types of education, but which will generally be controlled by the common aim of providing for the needs of children who are entering and passing through the stage of adolescence. (Chapter 3, Sections 87 and 88)

4. All normal children should go forward to some form of post-primary education. It is desirable, having regard to the country as a whole, that many more children should pass to 'secondary' schools, in the current sense of the term. But it is necessary that the post-primary stage of education should also include other types of post-primary schools, in which the curricula will vary according to the age up to which the majority of pupils remain at school, and the different interests and abilities of the children.

In selective post-primary schools the course should be designed to cover the period from the age of 11+ to that of 15+. In non-selective post-primary schools, so long as the leaving age is 14+, the course should be framed to cover the period from the age of 11+ to that of 14+, but provision should be made for the needs of pupils who remain at school to the age of 15+. (Chapter 3, Section 89)

5. The schools which deal with the post-primary stage of education should include (in addition to Junior Technical and 'Trade' Schools) the following types:

(i) Schools of the 'secondary' types now commonly existing (see Chapter 3, footnote 1), which at present follow in the main a predominantly literary or scientific curriculum, and carry the education of their pupils forward to the age of at least 16+.

(ii) Schools of the type of the existing selective Central Schools, which give at least a four years' course from the age of 11+, with a 'realistic' or practical trend in the last two years.

(iii) Schools of the type of the existing non-selective Central Schools, which may either be the only Central Schools in their area, or may exist side by side with selective Central Schools and cater for those children who do not secure admission to such schools.

(iv) Senior Classes, Central Departments, 'Higher Tops' and analogous arrangements, by which provision is made for the instruction of pupils over the age of 11+ for whom, owing to local conditions, it is impossible to make provision in one or other of the types of school mentioned above. (Chapter 2 , Sections 90, 91 and 92)

6. A humane or liberal education is not one given through books alone, but one which brings children into contact with the larger interests of mankind. It should be the aim of schools belonging to the last three types to provide such an education by means of a curriculum containing large opportunities for practical work, and closely related to living interests. In the earlier years the curriculum in these schools should have much in common with that provided in the schools at present commonly known as 'secondary'; it should include a foreign language, but permission should be given to omit the language in special circumstances; and only in the last two years should a 'practical' bias be given to the courses of instruction provided. (Chapter 3, Section 93)

7. At the age of 11+ pupils from primary schools should normally be transferred to a different school, or, failing that, to a different type of education from that given to pupils under the age of 11+, but provision should be made in exceptional cases for the transfer of children at a later age, provided that the course which they pursue after such transference lasts sufficiently long to be of value to them. (Chapter 3, Section 96)

Nomenclature

8. It is desirable that education up to the age of 11+ should be known by the general name of Primary Education, and education after that age by the general name of Secondary Education, and that the schools mentioned in conclusion No. 5 above, all of which are concerned with the secondary stage of education, should be called by the following designations:

(i) Schools of the 'secondary' type most commonly existing today, which at present pursue in the main a predominantly literary or scientific curriculum, to be known as Grammar Schools.

(ii) Schools of the type of the existing selective Central Schools, which give at least a four years' course from the age of 11+, with a 'realistic' or practical trend in the last two years, to be known as Modern Schools.

(iii) Schools of the type of the present non-selective Central Schools, with a curriculum on the same general lines as that of the Modern Schools just mentioned, and with due provision for differentiation between pupils of different capacities, also to be known as Modern Schools.

(iv) Departments or classes within public elementary schools, providing post-primary education for children who do not go to any of the three previous types of schools, to be known as 'Senior Classes'. (Chapter 3, Sections 98 and 99)

Curriculum

9. The general characteristics of Modern Schools will be as follows:

(i) They will plan their courses for a period of 3 or 4 years, and these courses will accordingly be simpler and more limited in scope than those in Grammar Schools, which are planned for 5 or more years.

(ii) Though the subjects included in the curriculum of Modern Schools and Senior Classes will be much the same as those in Grammar Schools, more time and attention will be devoted to handwork and similar pursuits in the former.

(iii) While the courses of instruction in Modern Schools in the last 2 years should not be vocational, the treatment of the subjects of the curriculum should be practical in the broadest sense and brought directly into relation with the facts of everyday life. The courses of instruction, though not merely vocational or utilitarian, should be used to connect the school work with the interests arising from the social and industrial environment of the pupils. (Chapter 3, Sections 92-94, Chapter 4 passim, and Chapter 5, Section 122)

10. In framing the curricula of Modern Schools and Senior Classes due regard should be paid both to the capacities of the pupils and to the local environment. The curriculum should in each case be planned as a whole, in order that the teaching of the various subjects may be so adjusted as to secure uniformity in the presentation of any matter which is common, and to prevent overlapping. Similarly, in the arrangement of the timetable, any rigid separation of the different sides of a subject should be avoided. In framing the several syllabuses, each subject should again be regarded as a whole; and all detail irrelevant to the purpose in hand should be eliminated, in order that the pupil may not be overburdened, and an opportunity may be given for the development of individual tastes. Finally, every effort should be made to ensure a close connection between the work in school and the pupil's further education after leaving. (Chapter 4, Sections 106-116)

Practical bias

11. Modern Schools and Senior Classes should, as a rule, give a practical bias to the curriculum in the third or fourth year of the course. This bias should be introduced only after careful consideration of local conditions and upon the advice of persons concerned with the local industries. It should not be of so marked a character as to prejudice the general education of the pupils. Adequate provision should be made for the needs of such pupils as may gain greater advantage by following a more general course of study. (Chapter 5, Section 126 and passim.)

Further Education

12. It is desirable that teachers in Modern Schools and Senior Classes should endeavour to secure the continued education of their pupils after school age by drawing attention to such facilities for further instruction, whether cultural or vocational, as are available in the area. (Chapter 4, Section 116, Chapter 8, Section 169)

Junior Technical Schools

13. Junior Technical Schools of the 'Trade School' type, which train pupils for a particular occupation, are doing valuable work within their own province, and should be encouraged, wherever the needs and requirements of local industries provide an adequate demand. (Chapter 2, Section 80)

14. The same is true of Junior Technical Schools which train pupils for the general group of industries concerned with engineering in its various branches, in which an understanding of the scientific principles underlying the construction and use of machinery is of importance. (Chapter 2, Section 80)

15. The question of including a foreign language in the curriculum of Junior Technical Schools should be decided for each individual school in the light of local conditions and the requirements of the group of occupations for which the school affords a preparation. (Chapter 2, Section 82)

Full-time Junior Art Departments in Art Schools

16. Junior full-time Art Departments are of genuine value in their own sphere, and where local conditions require them might with advantage be further developed. (Chapter 2, Section 84)

Facilities for the transference of pupils from one type of post-primary school to another

17. Adequate arrangements should be made for transferring children, who show ability to profit by 'secondary' education beyond the age of 15+, from Modern to Grammar Schools at the age of 12 or 13. Conversely, similar arrangements should be made for transferring pupils from Grammar Schools to Modern Schools or to Junior Technical Schools, as need may be. (Chapter 3, Section 97, and Chapter 7, Section 156)

Qualifications of teachers and standard of staffing in Modern Schools and Senior Classes

18. The qualifications of the teachers and the standard of staffing in proportion to the number of pupils in the school should approximate to those required in the corresponding forms of Grammar Schools. More teachers, however, will be required in practical subjects, since Modern Schools will, as a rule, have an industrial, commercial or agricultural bias, and will accordingly need some teachers with special qualifications. We think that the teachers should have ample time for preparation and private reading, and should be afforded full opportunities for attending vacation and other short courses. (Chapter 6, Section 140)

Equipment of Modern Schools and Senior Classes

19. The education of children over the age of 11 in Modern Schools and Senior Classes is one species of the genus 'secondary education'. It is not an inferior species, and it ought not to be hampered by conditions of accommodation and equipment inferior to those of Grammar Schools. We attach great importance, therefore, to ensuring that, so far as possible, and with due allowance for differences in the character of the curriculum and the age range of the pupils, the construction and equipment of Modern Schools should approximate to the standard from time to time required by the Board in schools working under the Regulations for Secondary Schools. At the same time, we fully recognise that finance is a limiting factor, and, as it is not feasible at once to establish conditions such as we have described, we must be content to recommend the establishment of the best conditions obtainable in the circumstances. (Chapter 6, Section 142)

Arrangements for the admission of children to Selective Modern Schools and Senior Classes

20. While we think that all children should enter some type of post-primary school at the age of 11+, it will be necessary to discover in each case the type most suitable to a child's abilities and interests. For this purpose a written examination should be held, and also, wherever possible, an oral examination. A written psychological test might also be specially employed in dealing with borderline cases, or where a discrepancy has been observed between the result of the written examination and the teacher's estimate of proficiency. Where Local Education Authorities so determine, a preliminary examination might be held in order to discover candidates who should be encouraged to go forward to the free place examination proper.

Arrangements for organising and conducting examinations for admission to schools of different types should be left to the Local Education Authorities. (Chapter 7, Section Section 57)

The lengthening of school life

21. It is desirable that legislation should be passed fixing the age of 15 years as that up to which attendance at school will become obligatory after the lapse of five years from the date of this report - that is to say, at the beginning of the school year 1932. (Chapter 8, Section 168)

A Leaving Examination for pupils in Modern Schools and Senior Classes

22. A new Leaving Examination should be framed to meet the needs of pupils in selective and non-selective Modern Schools and in the Senior Classes which retain some of their pupils to the age of 15; but, in order to allow further time for the free development of such schools, this special examination should not be established for at least three years, and the syllabus for it should be carefully adjusted to the needs of broad and varied curricula. Whatever the leaving age may be, this examination should be designed to be taken by pupils at the age of 15+ with the definite object of encouraging them to remain at school up to that age. (Chapter 9, Section 176)

23. The presentation of pupils for any such Leaving Examination should be wholly optional, both in respect of the individual pupil and of the school as a whole. Any individual pupil should be free to take another examination, such as the First School Examination, if he or she so desires. We attach special importance to the view that entry to the examination should be voluntary. (Chapter 9, Sections 177 and 178)

24. The organisation of an examination of this type could best be undertaken by a number of joint boards in different districts throughout England and Wales, consisting of representatives appointed by Local Education Authorities, both for higher and elementary education, by the universities of those districts, and by the teaching profession in its various grades. These examining bodies might also appoint as members persons having special educational experience irrespective of the consideration of residence in a particular area. For example, representatives of some of the technological and agricultural colleges might be appointed or co-opted. (Chapter 9, Section 178)

25. The Board of Education should take the initiative in setting up these examining boards and in working out the details of their organisation. It might, for example, help to delimit appropriate areas for the several joint examining boards, and convoke conferences in those areas to determine the proper organisation of the local board. (Chapter 9, Section 178)

26. Individual pupils in Grammar Schools should be allowed to sit for the Leaving Examination in Modern Schools and Senior Classes, if they so desire, just as individual pupils in Modern Schools should be permitted in certain instances to take the First School Examination. (Chapter 9, Section 178)

27. Arrangements might also be made by which the certificates of having passed the Leaving Examination might be endorsed by the head teacher, who could state thereon the degree of proficiency attained by the pupil in those subjects which were not offered in the examination, either because they were optional or because they were practical subjects such as handwork, or gardening, or craft work. We hope, however, that suitable arrangements may be developed in the future for giving credit for proficiency in practical subjects, which will place them more on a parity with the other subjects of the curriculum. (Chapter 9, Section 178.)

28. Pupils leaving the post-primary schools at the age of 14+, or pupils who for any reason have not taken the Leaving Examination or have failed to pass it, should, if they so desire, be supplied with an internal school certificate signed by the head teacher and countersigned by the local Director of Education. (Chapter 9, Section 178)

Administration

29. We note that the existing division of education into Elementary, Secondary and Technical, is losing its rigidity, and we hope that the artificial barriers between these three divisions will rapidly disappear. (Chapter 10, Section 184)

30. It would appear that the relations between County Education Authorities and the Authorities for Elementary Education only which act within their areas are in general friendly, and that cases in which there has been any serious lack of cooperation between the two sets of Authorities in regard to the provision of 'courses of advanced instruction' are comparatively few in number. We think that, for the time being, adequate cooperation might be secured between the two sets of Authorities, if fuller advantage were taken of the various provisions in the Education Act of 1921, designed to facilitate cooperation between Local Education Authorities. (Chapter 10, Section 189.)

31. In theory there are four main lines on which the local administration of education might be reorganised with a view to improving the provision of secondary education in the broadest sense of the word:

(i) Legislation might be introduced abolishing Authorities for Elementary Education only and transferring all their powers and duties in respect of education to existing Authorities for Higher Education.

(ii) Legislation might be introduced for transferring to Authorities for Higher Education all the powers and duties of those Authorities for Elementary Education only which are concerned with areas that do not reach a certain minimum standard of population, and vesting with full powers in respect of Higher Education those Authorities which are concerned with areas that attain such a minimum standard.

(iii) Legislation might be introduced creating new provincial authorities in which the Authorities for Elementary Education only and the Authorities for Higher Education were merged together.

(iv) There might be further cooperation between existing Authorities for Elementary Education only and Authorities for Higher Education, with the object of securing by mutual agreement that the Authority for Higher Education should be fully consulted before Modern Schools or other forms of provision for post-primary education were introduced by an Authority for Elementary Education only. (Chapter 10, Section 191)

32. The first of these four possible arrangements may for the time being be set aside, as it would raise difficult political issues. It is accordingly suggested that in progressive stages first the fourth arrangement and then the second should be adopted, and that ultimately the question should be considered whether the third would not be the finally satisfactory plan. (Chapter 10, Section 192)

33. We recommend, therefore, as an interim arrangement for the immediate future, the general adoption of methods of cooperation between the two sets of Local Education Authorities such as those suggested in (iv) of the recommendation No. 31. (Chapter 10, Section 192)

34. We recommend that at as early a date as possible legislation should be introduced for the transference to Authorities for Higher Education of all powers and duties of those Authorities for Elementary Education only which are concerned with areas that do not reach a certain minimum standard of population, and for the vesting of full powers in respect of Higher Education in those Authorities for Elementary Education only which are concerned with areas that attain such a minimum standard. (Chapter 10, Section 192)

35. Finally, we recommend that consideration should be given to the question whether it may not be a desirable objective of educational development that provincial authorities for education should be instituted, in which the authorities for Elementary Education only and the Authorities for Higher Education shall both be ultimately merged. (Chapter 10, Section 192)

36. It is our earnest hope that the voluntary societies and managers of non-provided schools will aid to the best of their power the development of post-primary schools of the type for which we have suggested the name 'Modern', and will help to establish the Modern School firmly as an integral and general part of our national system of education. (Chapter 10, Section 198)

37. Local Education Authorities generally might follow the existing practice of several large Authorities and assign to the managers of Modern Schools and Senior Classes well defined powers and duties including some voice in the appointment of teachers. (Chapter 10, Section 199)

38. Persons appointed to serve as managers of Modern Schools and Senior Classes should be representative in the widest sense, including members of different professions and persons connected with commerce, industry or agriculture, whether as employers or employees. (Chapter 10, Section 199)

(Signed) WH HADOW (Chairman)

P Abbott; SO Andrew* (subject to Note 4); Ernest Barker; ER Conway (subject to Note 2); DHS Cranage (subject to Note 3); Gorell; Lynda Grier; Ivor H Gwynne; Freda Hawtrey; Percy Jackson; A Mansbridge; AJ Mundella (subject to Note 1); EM Tanner; RH Tawney; S Taylor (subject to Note 4); WW Vaughan; WC Watkins; WH Webbe (subject to Note 4); JA White.

Robert F Young (Secretary)
28 October 1926

* Mr Andrew disagrees with the nomenclature proposed in Chapter 3 Section 99 (i) (ii) and (iii) and repeated in Chapter 11, Recommendation No. 8 (i) (ii) and (iii).

Notes of reservation

Note by Mr AJ Mundella

We are asked to consider and report on 'Courses of Study' and I gladly sign all the educational suggestions for diverse courses, of four years, covering suitably all scholars above eleven or twelve years of age: my doubts arise on legal and administrative points.

I cannot adopt all the stress laid on the transfer of these scholars to other schools. In many cases such transfer is expediently wise, but in others it may be unnecessarily destructive to the school thereby 'decapitated', and a disadvantage to the scholars thus 'promoted'; especially if the transfer is to deprive them of the statutory and administrative rights and safeguards which the law provides for scholars in 'Public Elementary Schools'. (Section 99)

In the organisation of local administration we need devolution rather than the centralisation suggested; whilst the framework of Local Education Authorities should be brought into accord with the general system of Local Government. (Section 192)

And even in such a simple matter as the lengthening of school life, all experience shows that the wiser course is to press the local use of optional powers, as the true and only effective prelude to mandatory legislation. (Section 168)

I am sorry to disagree on these points with colleagues who have been so kind and courteous in accepting suggestions from me in other directions.

Note by Miss ER Conway on the comments in Section 96, and footnote thereto, of Chapter 3

By extracting this note from its context, it is my opinion that full weight has not been given to the evidence submitted by the National Union of Teachers. The paragraphs in which it occurs read as follows:

'It is probable that in many schools provision may be made for the continued education of scholars to the age of 15+. Sufficient accommodation may be available, suitable rooms for special instruction may exist, or may be provided without difficulty, and the necessary school equipment may be secured. In such schools there would be a break in the school life at the mental age of 11+. The department, whether for boys or girls or mixed, would consist of two sections, the junior department containing pupils from the age of admission to 11+, and the senior department from 11+ to 15+. The age of admission to such a composite department would be determined by local conditions, but usually the age for admission would be that at which transfer takes place from an infants' department to a department for older scholars.

In other cases, children will be transferred at the age of 11+ to another school building, and a form of organisation where such transfer takes place would in many cases be preferable to the retention of the scholars in the school building where they passed their earlier years, as it is undesirable that pupils of the age of 15 should be taught under the same roof as children under the age of 11. Raising the school age to 15+ must lead either to the building of new schools or to the remodelling of existing schools in order that full provision may be made by means of laboratories, workrooms, domestic science rooms and so forth, for the continued education of pupils to the age of 15+.'

I am definitely of opinion that the Union's suggestions include arrangements where advanced instruction may be adequately provided in existing schools. This will prevent the injury to the educational efficiency, which a system of transfer of all the brighter pupils may bring. The teaching of the older and brighter children acts as a stimulus to the staff, and their removal will destroy a source of interest for the teachers, and of ambition for the children. The fact that older and younger children are dealt with in the same school building is also a valuable aid to character training, giving the older pupils that sense of responsibility to their younger and weaker colleagues which develops into the mutual care and consideration which is so helpful in the life of a community.

'In other cases', namely, in those schools where such arrangements cannot be made owing to inability to provide satisfactory equipment, accommodation, playground space and other amenities, it is desirable to make separate provision. The effect of the Union's evidence is, in my opinion, to stress the necessity of making full and generous provision for advanced instruction unhampered by conditions which now hinder its proper development.

Note by the Rev Dr DHS Cranage in respect of recommendation No. 24

I am very doubtful as to the wisdom of setting up a number of new examining boards in different parts of the country. I am not convinced that the existing bodies, strengthened by representatives of the various interests concerned, could not do the work efficiently. If, however, such boards are considered necessary, I think it should be laid down that the setting of papers should be delegated to a central committee, on which all would be represented. Such a committee could easily set papers on some of the subjects which would apply to the whole country, and also provide alternative papers to cover the needs of the various districts. Coordination of standard is important, so that the leaving certificates, as in the case of secondary schools, should have an approximately equal value, wherever they were obtained. It would be very difficult to ensure that on all the boards there should be 'persons having special educational experience, irrespective of the consideration of residence in a particular area'. It would be comparatively easy to secure the services of such persons on a central committee sitting in London.

Note by Mr SO Andrew, Mr S Taylor and Mr WH Webbe in respect of recommendation No. 21

We are sorry we are unable to agree with the majority of our colleagues in regard to Recommendation No. 21.

In our view, the weight of evidence on this point is summed up accurately in the first sentence of Section 162 of Chapter 8. 'The desirability of prolonging education must depend largely on the character of the education which is offered' and in the third sentence of Section 165 'Provided that due provision is made on the lines suggested in our earlier chapters, for the extension and improvement of post-primary education, the desirability on educational grounds of raising the age of compulsory school attendance from 14 to 15 is not, it seems to us, open to doubt.'

At the same time, in Section 166, it is emphasised that '... if children are to be retained at school for another year with advantage to themselves and the community, an increase of staffing and (when the existing buildings are already fully utilised), of accommodation, will be required.'

We are entirely in agreement as to the desirability of gradually extending the school life. We differ from our colleagues in believing that it is quite impossible within the time mentioned in the Recommendation, and indeed within a much greater time to fulfil the conditions which our colleagues have accepted as fundamental.

The experience of Local Authorities who have been actively endeavouring during the last few years to develop the education of older children along the lines suggested in our Report, has shown that, from every point of view such a rate of development as is contemplated would be impossible.

We do not desire to emphasise the magnitude of the financial burden which such a rapid development would throw on a community already overburdened, nor do we stress the Administrative difficulties of making such an enormous change in so short a time, without completely unbalancing any general programme of educational advance.

It is, we think, sufficient to point out that such a change would involve the provision of accommodation for half a million more children, and the training and selection of about 15,000 to 20,000 teachers of a particular type, with a large percentage of practical teachers, of whom there is notoriously a shortage at the present time, and all of them imbued with a real understanding of the new ideals and of the new methods which we desire our Modern Schools to exhibit. We believe that such a task could not possibly be completed in the time suggested.

We believe the proper line of advance to be by fostering the efforts which are now being made by Local Authorities. The effect of these efforts is shown in Section 161 of Chapter 8, and if the figures could be brought up to date, we are sure that the rate of progress would be seen to have been maintained. Such 'heightened appreciation of the value of education and increased willingness on the part of parents to make sacrifices in order that their children may continue to receive it' is entirely healthy, and should be encouraged in every way by constant improvement, as circumstances permit, in the provision made for older children. The time will naturally come when the educational machine has so far developed, that it is capable without disaster of taking in, by a general raising of the school leaving age, the comparatively small number of children between 14 plus and 15 plus who will still remain outside it, but in our view that time is much further off than our colleagues believe.