Hadow (1926)

(page numbers in brackets)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages (i-xxiv)
Membership, Analysis, Preface, Introduction
Chapter I (1-35)
Post-primary education in England and Wales 1800-1918
Chapter II (36-69)
The facts of the present situation
Chapter III (70-100)
The lines of advance
Chapter IV (101-111)
Curricula for Modern Schools and Senior Classes
Chapter V (112-121)
The place of 'bias' in the curriculum
Chapter VI (122-131)
Staffing and equipment
Chapter VII (132-139)
Admission of children to Modern Schools and Senior Schools
Chapter VIII (140-149)
The lengthening of school life
Chapter IX (150-154)
The question of a leaving examination
Chapter X (155-171)
Administrative problems
Chapter XI (172-188)
Conclusions, recommendations, notes of reservation
Suggestions (188-247)
on the curriculum
Appendix I (248-261)
List of witnesses
Appendix II (262-280)
Notes on nomenclature
Appendix III (281-288)
Statistics relating to Chapter II pt. ii
Appendix IV (288-313)
Post-primary education abroad
Appendix V (313-322)
List of publications
Index (323-339)

London: HM Stationery Office

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179. We now pass on to discuss the question whether any reorganisation or adaptation of the existing administrative system is necessary or desirable, in view of the proposals made above, and, if so, what form that adaptation or reorganisation should assume. We have already stated our opinion that, even if no change of the kind takes place, the general use of the terms 'primary' and 'secondary' to describe the first and second stages in education is both possible and desirable. We hope, that is to say, that even if the expression 'Public Elementary School' is retained as a legal designation, public opinion and official phraseology may increasingly recognise and describe education up to the age of 11 as the primary stage, and that it may be generally recognised that the post-primary or secondary stage of education begins at that age, even though it may not take place in what is called today a 'Secondary School'.

180. At the same time, the question whether a change not merely in terminology but in educational law and administration is needed to keep pace with the rapid change in educational facts is clearly a very important one and calls for most careful consideration. Several witnesses have pressed it on our attention. Thus Sir Robert Blair emphasised the need for the treatment of the problem of post-primary education for pupils from about 12 to 16 as one whole. 'There was a danger that with authorities for elementary education and authorities for higher education covering the same geographical areas in the counties; with Central Schools under the authority for elementary education, and Secondary Schools under the higher education authority; with local authorities' differences of outlook, both educational and financial; and with the division of the Board of Education into Elementary, Secondary and Technical branches, the treatment might be one-sided and incomplete. The way in which the administrative organisation had grown up centrally and locally was a hindrance rather than a help to the treatment of the problem as a whole.'

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Mr Salter Davies, Director of Education for Kent, pointed out that the effective organisation of the education of children up to the age of 15+ was hampered by various difficulties, some of which were inherent in the nature of the problem, while others were primarily historical and accidental. Of the latter, two called for special note: 'One is the prevailing practice of dividing education into three systems - Elementary, Secondary and Technical, each distinguished by its own particular rules and regulations. The second difficulty lies in the prevalence of the system of dual control. In regard to the former difficulty, the development of three systems was natural enough, so long as the problem of education had to be attacked piecemeal. It became evident, however, that even before the passing of the Education Act 1902, such a division hampered the development of education. That Act, from some aspects, probably strengthened the barriers between the three systems of education. Encouragement was given to the rapid growth of the great system of Secondary Schools primarily designed for the talented minority, and for those whose parents were prepared to give them a longer school life. At the same time, the upward development of the Public Elementary School, if not actually discouraged, was not made easy, as the local authorities had experienced in their attempts to develop a system of Higher Elementary Schools. The results could hardly have been otherwise, seeing that the Education Act of 1902 had established two sets of administrative authorities, one of which was concerned almost wholly with the problem of elementary education. The Education Act of 1918 aimed at unifying within the existing administrative system all forms of educational activities, yet left the three systems - elementary, secondary and technical - intact. The result had been a constant effort to bridge the gulf which separated elementary from secondary and technical and Further Education, both in regard to standards of accommodation, equipment, staffing and salaries.'

We will discuss briefly the three main administrative difficulties to which the witnesses quoted above and many other witnesses referred, namely:

(a) the division of education into three compartments; Elementary, Secondary and Technical, each with separate rules and regulations;

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(b) the existence, within the areas of local authorities for higher education, of smaller local authorities having control over elementary education only, within the area of their boroughs or urban districts;

(c) the existing system of 'dual control'.

181. This tripartite division is the outcome of the historical development of education in England and Wales. Before the passing of the Board of Education Act in 1899, elementary education (including higher grade schools) was administered by the Education Department in Whitehall. Endowed secondary schools were largely controlled by the division of the Charity Commission which dealt with educational trusts, and technical education was administered by the Science and Art Department which, however, largely owing to the lack of adequate provision of secondary schools, had since 1873 been giving extensive assistance to Schools of Science and organised Science Classes, many of which were held in the premises of grammar schools, or of higher grade schools which, from the legal point of view, were 'Public Elementary Schools'. The Education Act of 1902 repealed the Technical Instruction Acts of 1889 and 1891 and divided education into elementary and 'other than elementary', a classification based chiefly on administrative and financial considerations. The councils of counties and county boroughs were constituted the local authorities for higher education, and in addition, boroughs with a population of over 10,000 and urban districts with a population of over 20,000, according to the census of 1901, were constituted local authorities for elementary education within their own areas. The Education Act of 1918 aimed at unifying within the existing administrative system all forms of educational activities, but in effect left the three systems of elementary, secondary and technical education intact, though from the strictly legal point of view it preserved the two-fold classification of education into higher and elementary set up by the Education Act of 1902.

182. Several of our witnesses were of opinion that some of the difficulties inherent in the present tripartite arrangement could probably be removed without much difficulty by administrative action on the part of the Board of Education. In this connection, it

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should be pointed out that the division of the Board into distinct branches for Elementary, Secondary and Technical Education came to an end in November 1922, and though separate Regulations are still issued for these three divisions of education, there is a noticeable trend towards unification. There are still three separate Principal Assistant Secretaries of the Board responsible for the administration of the Grant Regulations, and the carrying out of the Board's policy under the Education Act of 1921, in regard to Public Elementary Schools, Secondary Schools, and Technical and Continuation Schools; but, apart from these three officers, most of the higher staff of the Board engaged in these branches of administration are non-specialised. Under the present system, each officer is allocated to a territorial area, and deals with all branches of education in that area. Similarly, there is less and less division between the different branches in the actual working of the Board's system of inspection. For example, Central Schools are inspected jointly by Inspectors of Elementary Schools and Inspectors of Secondary Schools, and an Inspector of Elementary Schools may co-operate in the work of an Inspector of Secondary Schools or vice versa.

The recent reorganisation of the Board's Inspectorate has proceeded on the lines of amalgamating the three branches of secondary, technical and elementary education, in the higher stages, so that in each Division there will ultimately be one Divisional Inspector with his assistants, responsible for surveying the needs of their area as a whole, in co-operation with local authorities, and reporting to the Board upon the provision for education as a whole in each individual area and its efficiency, and upon the further accommodation required in all types of school.

183. It was, indeed, pointed out by some witnesses that though the tripartite division of education had now no statutory basis, and might from one aspect be regarded as a survival of an earlier stage in the development, it was nevertheless founded on significant differences between the teachers in the three sets of institutions concerned. Thus it was still true to say that the typical teacher in a Public Elementary School held the Board's Certificate and had probably passed through a training college; a large proportion of the masters and mistresses in Secondary Schools were university graduates, but had not as a rule taken a course of professional training; and many members of the staffs

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of Technical Colleges and Schools possessed professional or craft qualifications, and in many cases had also had practical experience in industry or in business. These differences still found outward expression in the various associations of teachers in Technical Colleges and Institutions, teachers in Secondary Schools and teachers in Public Elementary Schools, and the existence of these distinct organisations was an element in the situation that could not be ignored.

184. On the other hand, it is evident that the forces making for unification are very powerful. For example, the Teachers Registration Council, which was authorised by Section 16 of the Education Administrative Provisions Act of 1907, and was formally constituted by Order in Council dated 29 February 1912, contains representatives of teachers of all types charged with the duty of framing and keeping a register of teachers in which the names are arranged in one column and in alphabetical order. The Council was established at the request of the teachers themselves, and its register, which now includes nearly 80,000 names, may be regarded as a symbol of the growing unity of all forms of teaching work. Further, there are numerous indications that the various associations of teachers are tending to draw closer to one another for joint action in matters affecting their common interests. Thus there is a Joint Committee which acts on behalf of the chief associations of elementary and secondary school teachers. Similarly, a number of the larger local education authorities have set up consultative committees composed of teachers from elementary, secondary and technical schools, which can advise on behalf of the teachers in all these types of schools within the administrative area.

It may be noted, too, that Rule 2 of Appendix A in successive issues of the Regulations for Secondary Schools up to 1925 pointed out that it was desirable that persons with experience of teaching in Public Elementary Schools, as well as those who had had experience in 'Secondary' Schools, should take part in conducting entrance tests for candidates for admission to 'Secondary' Schools.

On the whole therefore it may be said with truth that the forces making for unification are growing in strength, and we hope that the artificial barriers between the three types of education will rapidly disappear.

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185. Under Section 1 of the Education Act of 1902, as re-enacted in Section 3 of the Education Act of 1921, the local education authorities for higher education are county councils (including London) and county borough councils. The local education authorities for purposes of elementary education are:

(a) The councils of boroughs with a population of over 10,000 according to the census of 1901;

(b) The councils of urban districts with a population of over 20,000 according to that census;

(c) The council of every county borough;

(d) The council of every county in respect of the county area (exclusive of the areas mentioned in (a), (b) and (c) above).

186. It was almost inevitable that certain difficulties, such as those described by the witnesses quoted below, should have arisen since the Education Act of 1902 came into operation, owing to the practical working of a system of local government which had established in the same area two types of independent authorities, one responsible mainly for elementary education in part of the area, the other responsible for higher education for the whole area, and for elementary education in districts not otherwise provided for. To take an extreme instance, the area administered for educational purposes by the Lancashire County Council contains 27 authorities for elementary education only (19 non-county boroughs and 8 urban districts). However most counties in England and Wales only contain a small number

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of areas which are autonomous for purposes of elementary education, and several contain none at all. (1)

Section 20 of the Education Act 1902 made provision for arrangements whereby the council of any county borough or urban district might, with the approval of the Board of Education, relinquish any of its powers or duties under the Act in favour of the county council. Up to the present, however, only a small number of authorities have done so.

187. Before the Education Act of 1918 came into operation, there were various provisions in previous Education Acts enabling local authorities to combine for different purposes, but the Act of 1918 repealed the existing provisions and introduced one comprehensive provision covering every kind of combination. This is contained in Section 6 of the Education Act of 1918 (as re-enacted in Section 6 of the Education Act of 1921). It enables Councils having powers under the Act to combine for the purpose of performing any duty or exercising any power under the Act, and affords very wide facilities for such combination. Section 2(i)(c) of the Education Act of 1918 (as re-enacted in Section 8 of the Education Act of 1921) provides for co-operation between Authorities for Elementary and Higher Education in matters of common interest, and particularly in respect of the preparation of children for further education in schools other than elementary, and their transference at suitable ages to such schools.

It will thus be seen that the Education Act of 1918, as re-enacted in the Education Act of 1921, contains a whole series of provisions intended to facilitate co-operation between authorities for elementary education and authorities for higher education. It seems tolerably clear that, if an authority for elementary education chose, without adequate consultation and co-operation with the county authority having powers for higher education, to carry out the duty imposed on it by section 2(i)(a) of the Education Act, 1918 (2) to make adequate and suitable

(1) The actual distribution of the areas of local authorities for elementary education only among the 48 administrative counties of England (excluding London), may be summarised as follows: 6 counties contain no autonomous areas; 16 counties contain one each; 8 counties contain 2 each, and 8 counties contain 3 each. The remaining 10 counties contain respectively 4, 5, 6, 7, 8. 9, 12, 13, 16 and 27 autonomous areas. Of the 13 counties in Wales, 8 contain no autonomous areas, 2 contain 2 each, 2 contain 3 each, and one contains 7.

(2) Re-enacted as Section 20 of the Education Act 1921.

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provision by means of central schools, central or special classes, or otherwise for organising in public elementary schools courses of advanced instruction for the older or more intelligent children, some of the central schools or classes so established might affect adversely some of the 'secondary' schools administered by the county authority.

188. Many of our witnesses drew particular attention to the difficulties caused in regard to post-primary education by the existence of these two sets of local education authorities. For example, the Director of Education for a large county area expressed the opinion that the natural development of education would sooner or later compel the country to make up its mind what was to be the administrative unit for all forms of education. It was fast becoming impossible to continue the arrangement under which the education of a number of urban areas was administered by two local authorities. The smaller the area, the greater were the difficulties. Another Director of Education informed us that there were 13 authorities for elementary education forming enclaves within the area of his county with the result that the education of the county had to be fitted into 13 systems. 'It was indeed a task that almost passed the wit of man.'

The criticisms offered on behalf of headmasters of 'Secondary' Schools situated in the area of authorities for elementary education only were somewhat severe. One headmaster, who had circulated a questionnaire on the subject to a large number of headmasters of 'Secondary' Schools, situated in the areas of authorities for elementary education only, stated that, though in a few instances the local Central Schools were too recently established to have had any effect on neighbouring 'Secondary' Schools, nevertheless, in the great majority of cases, the headmasters of the 'Secondary' Schools were agreed that the new Central Schools, established by Authorities for Elementary Education only, were having a prejudicial effect on the numbers and standard of entrants to the Secondary Schools. For example, in a town with a population of 30,000, no fee-paying pupil from the urban area had applied for admission to the local 'Secondary' School in September 1924. In another town, the number of fee-payers from the urban area entering the 'Secondary' School had fallen from 64 in 1921-22 to 19 in 1924-25. This was believed to be largely due to the establishment of a new Central School in the town.

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189. It should be mentioned that we have received no complaint of ill-effects produced on 'Secondary' Schools by the establishment of Central Schools by a county borough or a county council having powers both for higher and elementary education. Indeed, the Director of Education for Carnarvonshire, where the local authority has established 7 Central Schools, stated that these new schools had not adversely affected the 9 'Secondary' Schools in the county area, and that while the numbers in all the 'Secondary' Schools in Carnarvonshire had increased during the past 10 years, the increase had been most noticeable in those places where 'Secondary' Schools and Central Schools had been running side by side. Furthermore, the representatives of the Association of Municipal Corporations informed us that no difficulty had been experienced in securing co-operation between County and County Borough Authorities in the matter of Central Schools and contributory schools. The only instances brought to our notice in which there had been friction or lack of co-operation between different Authorities in regard to Central Schools and their contributory schools were those in which the local education authority providing the Central School had powers in respect of elementary education only. (1) On the whole, it would appear that the relations between county Authorities and Authorities for elementary education only in their areas are tolerably friendly, and that the cases in which there has been any serious lack of co-operation between the two sets of authorities are comparatively few in number. For the present, therefore, we think that adequate co-operation might be secured between the two sets of Authorities, if fuller advantages were taken of the various provisions in the Education Act of 1921, designed to facilitate co-operation between Local Education Authorities.

190. Nevertheless, we cannot but realise that the wider problem to which many of our witnesses called attention still remains. That problem may be stated briefly as follows: As the law now stands authorities for elementary education administer only Elementary Schools which include, however, in view of Section 20 of the Education Act of 1921, a large portion of post-primary schools (e.g. Central Schools and Classes, Senior Schools, Senior Departments and Higher Tops), which we, in common with many of our witnesses, regard as belonging properly to the secondary grade of education. Will it be possible in the future for the

(1) The submission of schemes by Authorities under §§ 1, 4 and 5 of the Education Act 1918, as re-enacted in Sections 11, 12, 14 and 15 of the Education Act 1921, enables the Board to exercise some control over the provision of central schools.

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country to acquiesce permanently in the division of part of the secondary grade of education between two separate authorities in the same area, with the result that an authority for elementary education only may start a Modern School or Senior Class when neighbouring 'Secondary' Schools under the administration of the authority for higher education are not fully used?

191. In theory there appear to us to be four main lines on which the local administration of education might be reorganised. The first is legislation abolishing Authorities for elementary education only and transferring all their powers and duties in respect of education to existing Authorities for higher education. The second is legislation transferring to Authorities for higher education all the powers and duties of those authorities for elementary education only which are concerned with areas that do not reach a certain minimum standard of population, and vesting with full powers in respect of higher education those Authorities which are concerned with areas that attain the minimum standard in question. The third is legislation creating new provincial Authorities in which the Authorities for elementary education only and the Authorities for elementary and higher education will both be merged. The fourth is co-operation between Authorities for elementary education only and Authorities for elementary and higher education, with the object of securing by mutual agreement that just as representatives of an Authority for elementary education only already take part in the initiation and administration of 'Secondary' Schools maintained in its area by the authority for higher education, so the authority for higher education should be fully consulted before Modern Schools or other modes of provision for post-primary education are developed by an Authority for Elementary Education only.

192. Of these four possible arrangements, we should propose to eliminate the first, which, though it is simple and logical and would probably effect a great saving in expense, would raise very difficult political issues; and we would suggest that, in progressive stages, first the fourth arrangement and then the second should be adopted, and that ultimately the question should be considered whether the third would not be the finally satisfactory plan. Our suggestion, it will be seen, is meant to reconcile a necessary reform with that gradual evolution which is so marked a feature in our constitutional history.

The fourth arrangement, which we have mentioned, may be readily and immediately adopted. It is contemplated, as we have shown above, in several sections of the Education Act of 1918, as

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re-enacted in the Education Act of 1921; it already obtains in several areas throughout England and Wales, and it appears to work reasonably well. We recommend, therefore, as an interim arrangement for the immediate future, the general adoption on the lines indicated above of the methods of co-operation between the two sets of Authorities which are contemplated in various provisions in the Education Act of 1921. (1) But this is only a first step; and we should like to see a further step taken - and that at as early a date as possible. A number of Authorities for elementary education only cover a restricted area and command but small resources; and we cannot expect a universal development of Modern Schools, on such a scale as will make them accessible to all children, if such Authorities are left to face the difficult task of securing the provision of such schools within their areas. We recommend, therefore, that at as early a date as possible legislation should be introduced for the transference to Authorities for higher education of all the powers and duties of those Authorities for elementary education only which are concerned with areas that do not reach a certain minimum standard of population. But even if such legislation is passed, there will still remain the difficulty which arises from the existence of two sets of authorities; nor can we believe that the large problem of the provision of a general system of post-primary education in all the alternative forms which are necessary (Modern Schools, Senior Classes, Junior Technical Schools and the like) can really be solved or duly coordinated with the provision of 'Secondary' Schools unless and until a large and comprehensive Authority is instituted and empowered to deal with the large and comprehensive duty which lies upon the community. Such an Authority, we conceive, will, in the majority of cases, have to be broader than the geographical county, all the more as county boundaries, over which children must often pass to reach the place of education best suited to their needs, already raise difficult problems; and we look forward accordingly to the institution of a few large Authorities each of which would represent some grouping of contiguous Authorities united by common characteristics and common needs. We accordingly recommend that consideration should be given to the question whether it might not be a desirable objective of educational development that provincial Authorities for education should be instituted, in which the Authorities for elementary education only and the authorities for higher education should both be ultimately merged.

(1) Education Act 1921, Sections 6, 7, 8.

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193. The development of a system of post-primary education, under which children are transferred about the age of 11+ from primary schools to other institutions and other forms of instruction, has already caused attention to be turned, in certain areas, to difficulties arising from the fact that Elementary Schools are today under two types of management. In the future, and as post-primary education expands, these difficulties, unless steps are taken to remove them, may arise more frequently and may retard progress along the lines which are suggested in this report and which we believe that educationalists are generally agreed in regarding as desirable. With the larger aspects of the system of dual control we are not concerned, but it confronts Local Education Authorities, managers of non-provided schools, and the various voluntary societies or denominations with practical problems of considerable importance, the solution of which will demand foresight and goodwill on the part of all concerned. It is desirable, therefore, to state shortly the nature of the questions which from time to time arise, and the principal ways in which it has been proposed that they should be settled.

194. A Local Education Authority which is anxious to develop post-primary education is liable to find itself hampered by the fact that some of the schools attended by children over 11 years of age are not directly under its control. It may desire, for example, to group the older children from several schools in a single institution giving advanced instruction on the lines of Section 20 of the Education Act 1921; but if it does, it may find that the non-provided schools which such children at present attend are reluctant to part with them. It may wish to reorganise the schools in its area in such a way as to reserve certain of them for children over 11; but here again it may find that such reorganisation involves expenditure which the managers of non-provided schools are unwilling or unable to incur. It may propose to erect a new school specially designed to give post-primary education; but it may be discouraged from doing so by the knowledge that a sufficient number of children to justify the expenditure involved will not attend unless the managers of non-provided schools are favourable to the venture, and by the fear that it cannot count with certainty upon their co-operation. It is confronted with difficulties arising from the fact that

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the buildings of a considerable number of non-provided schools, whatever their value if they be judged by the standard of the period at which they were erected, are not well adapted to meet the actual requirements of today. Such points could be amplified, but it is not necessary to labour them. It is evident that the existence in a single area of two sets of schools doing the same work, under different management, is not favourable to simplicity or economy of organisation. Mr Salter Davies, the Director of Education for the County of Kent, expressed the opinion that a necessary 'requisite in developing an effective school organisation was the abolition of the present system of dual control'. In existing circumstances, he added, the efforts of a Local Education Authority to provide improved facilities, in districts where voluntary schools existed, were frustrated by the refusal or inability of the voluntary managers to co-operate. In Kent there had been no bad feeling, but of course the division of Public Elementary Schools into two separate classes, to some extent under different management, 'was an extraordinary complication'. Several other witnesses have spoken to the same effect about the difficulties inherent in the present situation.

195. If Local Education Authorities are liable to find their plans for developing post-primary education hampered by the existence of dual control, the societies and denominations concerned with non-provided schools are also faced with a situation that demands their serious consideration. At the present time, there are only a few non-provided schools which have been founded or exist exclusively for the provision of post-primary instruction for children over the age of 11; and the vast majority of non-provided schools are elementary schools of the ordinary type, which carry their pupils forward continuously, from the stage of the infants department to the age of 14, in the same building and under the same management. (1) If in the future a system of post-primary instruction in separate schools or classes is organised entirely by local authorities from the public funds, the non-provided elementary schools will lose their pupils about the age of 11; and the societies or denominations which established these schools, and for more than 100 years past have contributed voluntarily, along the lines of their interests and convictions,

(1) It should be mentioned that since 1919 a number of non-provided Central Schools (Church of England and Roman Catholic) have been established.

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to the general system of national education, will cease henceforward to be concerned (at any rate directly, and through a full-time system of voluntary schools) with the education of children who are passing through the important and critical period which lies between the age of 11 and that of 15. In any case, and even apart from so drastic a consequence, it is natural that those who are concerned with voluntary schools should feel some anxiety when they come to study our proposals and the possible effects which they may produce. The difficulties which we have endeavoured to state are more likely to be overcome if they are frankly faced, and it is proper that they should receive attention. At the same time their importance must not be exaggerated. It is common ground to all concerned, both Local Education Authorities and the various denominations, that the welfare of the children must be the first consideration, and that the development of post-primary education on broad and generous lines has much to contribute to that welfare. When the attainment of that end occupies (as it normally does) the first place in the minds of those to whom it falls to handle the problem, experience shows that it is possible to devise arrangements which at once facilitate the work of the Local Education Authority in providing post-primary schools and satisfy the desire of the various denominations that the children belonging to them shall receive denominational instruction.

196. The President of the Board has lately referred to the schemes which have been tentatively sketched out by various Authorities. We cannot do better than quote the general description which he has given of their character. (1) 'Generally speaking, these schemes resemble each other pretty closely, and appear, broadly speaking, to amount to this: that authorities should be empowered to accept the transfer of voluntary schools to them upon conditions which would allow denominational instruction to be given in them on certain days in the week. In all other respects the transferred schools are to be conducted in school hours as Council Schools, but religious instruction within the terms of Section 28 of the Act of 1921 is to be provided in all Council Schools and, during the hours set apart for such instruction, facilities are to be afforded, where desired, for the withdrawal of children for denominational teaching outside the school premises. Alternative schemes have been proposed under which the local authority is to have the power to assist voluntary schools without

(1) See 'The Times' of Saturday, June 26, 1926, page 10.

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requiring their transfer, but upon conditions which will give the authority more control than at present over the management, organisation and grouping of schools.'

The President remarks that these schemes have not yet assumed a definite form, and that it is not yet clear how far they command a general assent. "But,' he adds, 'their character is clear. They do not seek to lay down new principles, but aim at removing certain administrative difficulties by local agreement. They provide means whereby voluntary bodies may make mutually advantageous arrangements with the local authority for the future management of particular schools or groups of schools, but they do not contemplate any general change in the relationships and functions of the state and voluntary bodies, or in the position and duties of teachers.'

197. An example of such arrangements between voluntary bodies and Local Education Authorities is one under which, in accordance with the provisions of section 30(5)(c) of the Education Act of 1921, the managers of contributory schools may have adequate representation in the management of the Modern Schools to which children from their schools are transferred. This arrangement is already in force in some areas, and we are told it works amicably and admirably. At the same time, there are other possible arrangements which deserve to be mentioned. (1) The authorities responsible for voluntary schools may, for example, in suitable districts meet the situation which would arise, if effect were given to our proposals by limiting the number of their schools which deal with the education of younger children, and by using the resources which are thus set free for the purpose of starting new Modern Schools for the education of older children. They may, indeed, feel a natural reluctance to close any existing institution; but they may nonetheless recognise that it is preferable to close a number of the smaller schools dealing with younger children in order to maintain a Modern School of some size which provides an education for children over the age of 11.

(1) In this connection, reference may be made to the powers possessed by Local Education Authorities under Section 34 of the Education Act 1921 (re-enacting Section 31 of the Education Act 1918), in regard to the organisation and grouping of non-provided schools of the same denominational character.

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198. In conclusion we feel bound to express our earnest hope that the voluntary societies and managers of non-provided schools, in spite of the anxieties which they may naturally feel, will aid, to the best of their power, the development of post-primary schools of the type for which we have suggested the name 'Modern'. The welfare of the nation at large will be advanced by the growth of such schools; and the voluntary societies have the power to aid or retard that growth. If they promote arrangements for the satisfaction of their needs in such Modern Schools controlled by the public authority, they will be aiding the better education of the youth of England at its most crucial stage of development, and they will be aiding thereby the betterment of England at large. If they oppose the transference of children to Modern Schools, and prefer their retention, up to the age of 14, in senior classes conducted in elementary schools, they will be hindering the growth of Modern Schools, with all their possibilities, and they may also be hindering the highest development of the children themselves. New post-primary schools can hardly be erected if there is no adequate attendance, and the demand and attendance will be seriously diminished if a system of senior classes in existing elementary schools is to be widely retained. Children can hardly develop to the height of their powers if they remain in small numbers in their old elementary school, instead of going forward to gain the fruits both of the stimulus which comes from a new school and of the better organisation and teaching which the larger numbers gathered together in such a school permit and encourage. On every ground, therefore, we would reiterate our earnest hope that voluntary societies and public authorities, the co-operation of which has been a power, if it has also been a problem, in English education, will unite to establish the Modern School firmly as an integral and general part of our national system.

199. Throughout our report we have emphasised the importance of bringing the instruction given in modern Schools and Senior Classes into closer relationship with local conditions and needs.

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We think that a definite attempt might well be made to associate with the work of every Modern School and most, if not all, Senior Classes, representative local men and women who would be able to contribute knowledge and personal interest such as should be a constant help in developing the work of the school or class on lines suited to local needs and social conditions. The persons appointed to serve as managers should be representative in the widest sense, including members of different professions and persons concerned with commerce, industry or agriculture, whether as employers or employees. In many cases this is already achieved, but we understand that it is sometimes found difficult in certain districts to induce men and women with suitable qualifications to act as managers. This, in some instances at any rate, may be due to the fact that some Local Authorities leave comparatively little discretion to the managers of provided schools. We would accordingly suggest that local authorities might be well advised to follow the existing practice of several large Authorities, and assign to these bodies of managers well defined powers and duties, including some voice in the appointment of teachers. It seems to us that a carefully chosen body of managers, including persons with special knowledge of local conditions and local peculiarities, might often be of great service to the Authority in matters connected with the conduct of the Modern School or Senior Class, more especially as forming a link between the staff, the parents of the pupils, and local employers. The managers might fulfil a very useful function, as indeed they often do at present, by explaining and interpreting to parents, local employers and the community generally the special province, function and aim of Modern Schools and Senior Classes.