Hadow (1926)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Membership, Analysis, Preface, Introduction
Chapter 1 Development of post-primary education in England and Wales 1800-1918
Chapter 2 The facts of the present situation
Chapter 3 The lines of advance
Chapter 4 Curricula for Modern Schools and Senior Classes
Chapter 5 The place of 'bias' in the curriculum of Modern Schools and Senior Classes
Chapter 6 The staffing and equipment of Modern Schools and Senior Classes
Chapter 7 The admission of children to Modern Schools and Senior Schools
Chapter 8 The lengthening of school life
Chapter 9 The question of a leaving examination
Chapter 10 Administrative problems
Chapter 11 Conclusions and recommendations; Notes of reservation
Chapter 12 Suggestions on the curriculum in Modern Schools and Senior Classes
Appendix I List of witnesses
Appendix II Notes on nomenclature
Appendix III Statistics relating to Chapter 2(ii)
Appendix IV Post-primary education abroad
Appendix V List of publications
Index

London: HM Stationery Office

Chapter 5 The place of 'bias' in the curriculum of Modern Schools and Senior Classes
[pages 112 - 121]

117. All the Central Schools in the London area from their inception in 1911 have had a definite bias, either commercial or industrial, and in some cases both. The general education provided for all pupils comprises English, mathematics, history, geography, art, practical science, music and physical exercises, together with handwork for boys, and needlework and domestic subjects for girls. To these subjects is added in all schools with a commercial bias, and in some schools with an industrial bias, a modern language, usually French, including dictation, composition, conversation, and a study of standard French authors. After two years a bias is introduced. In schools with a commercial bias shorthand and bookkeeping are introduced in the third year, and typewriting and office routine in the fourth. To make room for these additional subjects some of those taught in the earlier years are discontinued. Boys usually drop handwork or science, or both; girls drop music and cookery and laundry practice. In boys' Central Schools with an industrial bias, special attention is devoted to practical mathematics, practical science, and handwork. Stress is also laid on technical drawing, which includes designing, scale drawing, tracing and the making of blue prints, In girls' Central Schools with an industrial bias, more time is given in the last years of the course to needlework, art, science and domestic subjects. A certain degree of bias is also given to the instruction in the ordinary subjects of the curriculum. In geography for example, special attention is devoted to the study of railways and trade routes, foreign markets, products (raw and manufactured), and imports and exports. In the same way, arithmetic may be studied from the commercial or industrial aspect - commercial arithmetic being largely concerned with money problems, such as interest, discount, annuities and insurance, and industrial arithmetic dealing with mensuration, estimates of cost and quantities.

118. Many Authorities have followed the example of London and have organised Central Schools with a commercial or an industrial bias, or both. In recent years the tendency in several Central Schools of this type has been to give less weight to the bias and to devote particular attention, at any rate in boys' schools, to mathematics, science, art and handwork.

Central Schools for girls, which often follow courses of study very little different from those of 'Secondary' Schools, show less trend than is generally to be found in Central Schools for boys towards the special requirements of local occupations.

In several urban areas, however, a definite attempt is being made to provide domestic courses for girls in Central Schools in addition to commercial and industrial courses. These domestic courses give special prominence in the last year or two of school life to housecraft in its various branches, to bookkeeping based on household accounts, to needlework, to sick nursing, and to elementary hygiene based on a science syllabus which comprises the necessary foundation of elementary chemistry and biology. Such domestic courses are intended for girls who wish either to pursue domestic occupations in the home, or ultimately to become managers or housekeepers in hotels, private houses and institutions of various kinds. Courses with a commercial bias for girls are generally designed to fit them for clerical posts or for situations as secretaries, and usually include some instruction in the elements of bookkeeping, shorthand and typewriting. Courses with an industrial bias for girls generally comprise instruction in dressmaking, millinery and the like.

The degree of the bias which is given to the course in boys' Central Schools varies greatly in different areas. In a few districts containing large engineering works, the bent in the direction of engineering is very noticeable, and except for the fact that Central Schools in such districts do not employ trade instructors, their curricula in the last years of the course often bear a strong resemblance to those of some Junior Technical Schools. In the Central Schools of a few towns on the sea-board, such as Scarborough and Lowestoft, specialised instruction is provided for boys going to sea. Similarly some of the Central Schools and classes giving advanced instruction at Devonport, Plymouth and Portsmouth frame their curricula to suit examinations which determine the admission of boys to the Royal Dockyards. Another type of Central School, which is not uncommon in the north of England, provides courses which serve as the first portion of a curriculum intended to be completed in Evening Schools.

The practical difficulties of providing a double bias (e.g. commercial and industrial) in a single school are considerable, and we were informed that in several instances the double bias had been largely abandoned, especially in mixed Central Schools. Some mixed Central Schools, however, still provide four separate courses, two in commercial subjects, and two with an industrial or technical bias, for boys and girls respectively. The 'technical' course for girls is predominantly domestic in character. One of the Central (Intermediate) Schools in a large town in the northern Midlands provides three courses, a general course, a practical course, and a third course, in the last year, intended mainly to enable young persons who will be entering factories to appreciate art and music, and to make good use of their leisure time.

119. On the other hand we were informed that there is a considerable group of Central Schools and Classes which provide a general course without any noticeable bias, offering many points of resemblance to the syllabus of an ordinary 'Secondary' School. Even in Central Schools professing to have a definite bent, the bias is not as a rule introduced till the third or in some cases even the fourth year of the course. Frequently, the bias merely consists in a certain grouping of subjects, or is indicated by the greater emphasis laid on handwork for boys and domestic subjects for girls, and the introduction of shorthand and typewriting for girls and for a number of boys. In many Central Schools which do not profess to have any definite bent, special emphasis is nevertheless laid upon what are regarded as 'practical' subjects, particularly mathematics, physics and mechanics, and technical drawing. We were told that a number of Central Schools refrain on educational grounds from providing a 'commercial' bias in spite of strong pressure from parents. In other cases we were informed that it would not be possible without special equipment to give any specific bias towards local industries. On the whole, however, there was general agreement among our witnesses that it was desirable to give a practical trend to the curriculum of Modern Schools and Senior Classes, and that such a trend should be largely determined by the character of the local industries and occupations.

120. We have collected a considerable body of evidence from employers on the subject of vocational bias. Their replies to the question 'What kind of qualification is most desirable in your work, e.g. scientific, mathematical, mechanical, artistic, literary or linguistic?' may be summarised as follows:

The engineering firms thought that it was desirable that trade apprentices should have had a thorough grounding in elementary mathematics and science together with a literary training sufficient to enable them to express themselves properly. Intelligence was more valuable than previous experience. Habits of careful observation, and a readiness to think things out by a process of scientific reasoning, were specially important.

The textile manufacturers stated that for the various technical processes mechanical qualifications were desirable. Accuracy in carrying out simple instructions dealing with manipulative or clerical work was specially important. Oh the clerical side, accuracy in keeping accounts, good handwriting, general neatness, and a sound knowledge of English grammar and composition, were desirable; and in the higher branches of correspondence a knowledge of one or more foreign languages was useful. For buyers and for commercial travellers quick observation, a power of reasoning, and a high grade of general intelligence were necessary.

The chemical manufacturers and soap-makers thought that pupils who remained at school the longest stood the best chance of becoming efficient workers later, though at first such pupils were not so attentive to works rules and discipline as those who entered the factory at 14 years of age.

The cocoa manufacturers stated that the most important qualifications for their purpose were receptivity of mind, keenness of observation, application to work, adaptability and general intelligence. Acquired knowledge was subordinate in importance to these qualifications. The majority of the workers needed no special qualification, but it was essential that they should have had hand and eye training. A high degree of manual dexterity was very useful, and for some of the girl employees the development of the artistic sense was important.

A firm of boot and shoe manufacturers stated that, though no special qualification was required for their work, they had observed 'a certain lack of initiative, resourcefulness and ambition in children entering the works straight from school owing, we believe, to the character of the Elementary School education.' They thought that this was largely due to the shortness of the school course.

Several great distributing firms stated that a good general education was the best foundation on which to build, though after 14 years of age some training in commercial methods might be of advantage. A thorough knowledge of elementary mathematics was especially valuable.

The farmers and agriculturalists thought that, on the whole, there should be more practical work and less book work in rural schools. Some were of opinion that it would be desirable to give the curriculum of Central Schools in rural areas a definite bias towards agriculture in the last year or two of the Course. Several farmers drew attention to the importance of teaching the older pupils in rural schools to take an interest in country life. It was suggested that much could be done to this end by means of school gardens and by the inclusion in the science curriculum of some account of farm animals and the life history of certain insects. (1) Attention was also drawn by several farmers to the great importance of a knowledge of elementary mechanics in modern agriculture. They thought it was desirable that boys in country districts should learn something at school about the machinery and plant used in modern farming.

In connection with their suggestions in the matter of bias in post-primary schools, several employers drew particular attention to the need for closer cooperation between head teachers and employers of labour. For example, the educational superintendent of a great engineering firm wrote:

'At present there seems to be very little coordination between the headmasters of schools and employers of labour. I am continually finding cases of lads who applied to my firm in order to take up apprenticeship or pupillage, whose previous education renders it impossible for us to make use of their services. On questioning these lads, I often find that they have no idea whatever as to what was the best course to pursue at school in view of the fact that they wished to become engineers.'

Several employers expressed very similar views.

A number of head teachers have established relations with local employers, and have attained useful results thereby. We think, however, that in general there has not been sufficient contact between teachers and employers, and that it would in future be desirable for head teachers to obtain the views of local employers and employees before giving any trend or bias, particularly of an industrial character, to the curriculum of Modern Schools and Senior Classes in the last two years of the course.

121. We consulted a number of head teachers of Central Schools on the subject of bias. Their views may be summarised as follows:

There was general agreement that a large proportion of the pupils are more attracted by the practical work than by the literary subjects. (2) For example, the head teacher of a large Central School in a Midland town wrote:

'Practical work, such as science, manual instruction, and housecraft, makes an appeal at all ages both to the boys and girls in my school. Of the general school subjects, literary subjects appeal particularly to the girls, and mathematics and science to the boys.' The head teacher of a boys' Central School in a seaport town wrote:

'The favourite subjects are mathematics and science, manual instruction and drawing.'

Most teachers were of opinion that it was undesirable to introduce any marked bias until the third or fourth year of the course. It was generally observed that children during their last years at school took the greatest interest in those subjects which were most likely to be of practical use to them on leaving school. In this connection, however, a number of head teachers informed us that there were no industries or types of occupation in their districts which called for special consideration in the school curriculum. Several teachers had found that the three groups of subjects which appealed most to pupils were:

(i) the industrial group for boys, in which special attention was paid to science and mathematics, woodwork and metalwork;

(ii) the commercial group for boys and girls, which included shorthand, bookkeeping and typewriting;

(iii) the domestic group for girls, which included cookery, laundrywork, needlework, sick nursing, elementary chemistry and hygiene.

Most teachers had found that, when a choice of subjects was provided in the last years of the course, it created additional interest in the work, and offered an inducement to pupils to remain longer at school.

122. As we have already indicated in the preceding chapter, we regard it as most important that in Modern Schools and Senior Classes the teaching in the several subjects of the curriculum should have throughout the course some relation to local environment, and should be brought into close association with the everyday surroundings of the pupils. This will secure their interest and show them the bearing of the teaching upon the facts of their everyday life. We should mention, in this connection, that we collected from Local Education Authorities and individual teachers in Elementary Schools a large body of evidence dealing with the statement so frequently made that many of the older pupils were simply 'marking time.' It appears from the replies that, where it was true, that the older pupils in Elementary Schools had lost interest in their work during the last years at school, this result had often been due not only to inadequate staffing and the absence of proper equipment, but also to the fact that the instruction given appeared to the pupils to have little or no bearing on the problems of their daily environment. We were told that in a number of cases the defect had been remedied by a modification of the curriculum on the lines we have suggested above, and by maintaining the necessary touch with the industrial and commercial conditions of the district. The teachers have obtained this result by devising a realistic curriculum which stimulates the interests of the pupils without curtailing their general education. Thus in boys' schools a prominent position in the curriculum is assigned to studies such as mathematics, science, and drawing, which are treated on practical lines. In this way, many head teachers are in a position to help their pupils on leaving school to obtain suitable employment. Schools conducted on these lines, even though they may not give a definite industrial or commercial bias to the curriculum in the last years of the course, may nevertheless with justice be described as having established a liaison with the local industries.

123. Many witnesses called attention to the necessity for a careful study of the general economic conditions of any given district, and of the occupations into which most of the pupils of local schools passed on leaving school, before any steps were taken to give a definite bias to the curriculum in the last years of the course. Several head teachers of existing Central Schools and classes in rural areas pointed out that it was a common mistake to suppose that all or even a majority of the children in an agricultural district were likely to be engaged in agriculture or its ancillary occupations. In point of fact, in many rural areas, only a small percentage of the pupils in rural schools find employment on the land. Again, the head teacher of a Central School for boys in a large mining town in Yorkshire writes: 'Though this is regarded as a mining town, the percentage of boys leaving the Central School and taking up employment in mines is only on the average about five per cent. Most of my pupils find employment as shop assistants, clerks and apprentices in Engineering Works.' Other teachers and administrators remarked that many local industries throughout the country were at present suffering from depression and were, in consequence, unable to assimilate more than a limited number of new workers; furthermore the mobility of labour in modern economic organisation was a fact which should always be borne in mind. We think, therefore, that Local Authorities and head teachers of Modern Schools would be well advised to exercise some caution before giving a very definite bias to the curriculum in the later years of the course. On the other hand, we are profoundly convinced of the truth of the view, which we have already stated in several passages of this Report, that throughout the whole course in Modern Schools and Senior Classes the treatment of the various subjects of the curriculum should respond sympathetically to the local environment. (3) The children should be encouraged to take an interest in local industries and occupations, and illustrations for the teaching of the several branches of the curriculum should be drawn where possible from local examples.

124. We regard it as important that, when a bias towards a group of occupations is introduced in the later years of the course, it should not be allowed to dominate the curriculum or to prejudice the general education of the pupils. As we have already indicated, we are strongly of opinion that any such bias in Modern Schools and Senior Classes should be of a general character, unlike the specific vocational teaching given in many Junior Technical Schools and Junior Art Departments. Most of the employers who gave evidence were opposed to any highly specialised curriculum for pupils up to the age of 15, and several stated that they preferred that after the age of 14+ pupils should continue their general education with a slight bias only in the direction of industry or commerce. One firm of chemical manufacturers were of opinion that the education given, even up to 15+, should not prepare the pupils for any special trade, though it might be possible to provide them with a better conception of the objects and conditions of business houses and industrial concerns. A firm of retail distributors stated that in their view specialised education might commit young people, before they were capable of making a choice, to a special calling for which they might subsequently prove quite unsuitable. With these views we concur, and we think that in no circumstances should the general education of pupils in Modern Schools and Senior Classes up to the age of 15+ be sacrificed to a bias in any direction, however well adapted to local conditions such a bias may in itself be. In cases where a definite bias is introduced in the later years of the course, care should be taken to make adequate provision for the needs of such pupils as may gain greater advantage by following a more general course of study.

125. It will be convenient at this stage to define our attitude towards the important question of vocational education in its bearing on any bias that may be given to the curricula of Modern Schools and Senior Classes in the last years of the course. We use the expression 'vocational education' as meaning a course of teaching and training which gives to the pupil's studies a definite direction towards the requirements of some particular calling or some group of callings. Such a form of education for older pupils is not only legitimate and reasonable, in view of the conditions of modern life, but for many pupils may also be the best for personal development, since it not infrequently releases the finer energies of mind, which a more general education would leave inert. It must, however, be remarked that the educational value of a vocational course depends to a great extent upon the nature of the vocation. Many occupations, such as the building trades, dressmaking and millinery, cabinet and furniture making and engineering, demand special knowledge and skill. Full-time vocational education for such occupations is already provided for pupils between the ages of 12 or 13+ and 15+ in many of the existing Junior Technical Schools. (4) The kind of bias which we contemplate for Modern Schools and Senior Classes is of a more general kind, and cannot strictly be described as vocational education.

126. We propose to use the term 'practical bias' to denote the emphasis laid in the school curriculum on practical aspects of certain subjects without involving work in the technicalities of any one specific trade or occupation. The aim which we suggest is that, while no pupil in a Modern School or Senior Class with a taste for industry, commerce or agriculture should be educated with a view to any one specific calling, he should nonetheless receive such a training as will make it easy for him to adapt himself on leaving school to any occupation in the group of occupations to which the bias is related. We recommend however, that such a bias should be introduced gradually, as the result of experiments over a term of years.

Our conclusion on the subject of bias is accordingly as follows: Modern Schools and Senior Classes should, as a rule, give a practical bias to the curriculum in the third or fourth year of the course. This bias should be introduced only after careful consideration of local economic conditions and upon the advice of persons concerned with the local industries. It should not be of so marked a character as to prejudice the general education of the pupils. Adequate provision should be made for the needs of such pupils as may gain greater advantage by following a more general course of study.

Footnotes

(1) In justice to the schools it should be pointed out that much is being done on these lines.

(2) It must be remembered that a large number of the children with literary tastes have passed on into Secondary Schools, as holders of free places.

(3) Sections 106, 111, 114.

(4) See Chapter 2 Sections 79-85.