Hadow (1924)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Preface, Contents, Membership, Analysis, Introduction
Chapter 1 History of development of psychological tests
Chapter 2 Summary of evidence
Chapter 3 Possible applications, conclusions and recommendations
Appendix I List of witnesses
Appendix II Recent experiments
Appendix III Use of tests in foreign countries
Appendix IV Standardisation and norms (Cyril Burt)
Appendix V Correlation in mental testing (Cyril Burt)
Appendix VI Grades in US schools (AE Twentyman)
Appendix VII Recent publications
Appendix VIII Examples of tests
Appendix IX General, special and group abilities
Index

Appendix VIII
[pages 199 - 225]

EXAMPLES OF TESTS

Selected for the Committee by Dr CYRIL BURT (1)

The following extracts from tests of various representative types are reprinted here to give the reader some concrete notion of the general nature of the methods used. Any notion so gained, however, can, at the most, be very inadequate. The specimens are illustrative excerpts only. They are not intended for practical use as they stand. The material here printed has been chosen because it will be immediately intelligible to the non-psychological student, not because it includes the most efficient tests of any particular kind. As a rule, the more effective cannot be explained to those unacquainted with psychological procedure without a lengthy technical description. There is a danger, therefore, that the very simplicity of the examples here adduced may lead the reader to believe that mental testing is far more simple to carry out, and far more easy to criticise, than it actually is. In particular, tests which require special apparatus, such as the best performance tests, the best vocational tests, and the best tests for specific abilities, are very imperfectly represented. The critic will find among what follows a considerable preponderance of early test material. The earlier tests, however, are more readily understood and, having furnished models for numerous later scales, have a greater representative value.

The Committee desires to express its indebtedness to the various authors and publishers for their kindness in according permission to reprint these examples from their works.

(i) Schedule of the tests assigned to the several years (London Revision)

The tests here enumerated include all the tests from both the 1908 and 1911 series, and are given in average order of difficulty for English children with revised age assignments.

AGE 3
1. Points to nose, eyes and mouth.
2. Repeats two numbers (one trial correct out of three), e.g. 3 7, 6 4, 7 2.
3. Knows own sex, whether boy or girl.
4. Gives name and surname.
5. Names knife, key and penny.
6. Enumerates items in two pictures out of three.

AGE 4
7. Repeats six syllables: 'I am cold and hungry'.
8. Repeats three numbers (one trial correct out of three): e.g. 914, 286, 539.
9. Counts four pennies.
10. Points to longer of two lines.
11. Points to prettier faces in three pairs.

AGE 5
12. Performs a triple order: putting key on table, shutting door, and bringing book.
13. Copies a square recognisably.
14. Repeats ten syllables.
15. Gives own age.
16. Distinguishes morning and afternoon.
17. Names four primary colours: blue, yellow, green, and red.
18. Repeats four numbers.
19. Compares two weights in three pairs differing by 9 grammes (e.g. 3 and 12 grammes, 6 and 15 grammes).

AGE 6
20. Knows (without counting) number of fingers on both hands.
21. Counts thirteen pennies.
22. Copies diamond recognisably.
23. Copies three words from script legibly, but errors allowed.
24. Names all the days of the week without error in 10 seconds.
25. Names without error four commonest coins: shilling, penny, sixpence, halfpenny.
26. Puts together two triangles of cardboard to make an oblong.
27. Defines by use three concrete words out of five (horse, chair, mother, table, fork).
28. Repeats five numbers.
29. Describes items in two pictures out of three.
30. Repeats sixteen syllables.
31. Points to right hand and left ear.

AGE 7
32. Recognises missing features in three pictures out of four.
33. Adds without error three pennies and three halfpennies.
34. States differences between concrete objects, e.g. fly and butterfly, wood and glass, paper and cardboard.
35. Writes four easy words from dictation, legibly, but errors allowed, e.g. 'the pretty little girls'.

AGE 8
36. Reads prescribed passage, recalling two items out of twenty.
37. Answers two out of three easy questions, e.g. 'What would you do if you broke something that did not belong to you?'
38. Counts backwards from 20 to 1.
39. Gives full date.
40. Gives change for 2d. out of 1s., actual coins being provided.
41. Repeats six numbers.

AGE 9
42. Names the months of the year in 15 seconds.
43. Names all the nine commoner coins in 40 seconds.
44. Reads prescribed passage, recalling six items out of twenty.
45. Defines three concrete words out of five in terms superior to use (same words as for Test 27).

AGE 10
46. Arranges five small weights, differing by 3 grammes, in order of heaviness.
47. Builds two sentences with three words in 1 minute (words given, 'London, money, river ').
48. Copies from memory two simple geometrical designs shown simultaneously for 10 seconds.

AGE 11
49. Explains three absurdities out of five, e.g. 'I have three brothers, Tom, Jack, and myself'.
50. Answers three out of five harder questions, e.g. 'Why should we judge a person by what he does, not by what he says?'
51. Gives sixty words in 3 minutes.
52. Repeats seven numbers.
53. Builds one sentence with three words in 1 minute (same words as for Test 47).

AGE 12
54. Gives three rhymes to the word 'obey'.
55. Rearranges correctly two out of three mixed sentences so as to make sense.
56. Interprets the meaning of two out of three pictures.

AGE 13
57. Resists suggestion given by six pairs of lines, the first three pairs differing in length.
58. Solves two circumstantial problems.

AGE 14
59. Repeats twenty-six syllables.
60. Defines three abstract terms (kindness, justice, charity).

AGE 15
61. Draws a sheet of paper first folded and then cut in the middle of one edge, showing the correct shape and position of the resulting holes.
62. Gives the differences between two out of three pairs of abstract terms (idleness and laziness, poverty and misery, evolution and revolution).
63. Draws a triangle shown as part of a simple geometrical diagram, to be reversed in imagination.

AGE 16
64. Repeats from memory the substance of Hervieu's Aphorism on Life.
65. Gives the three chief differences between a president and a king.

(ii) Samples of Binet's tests (London Revision) for a single mental year

The tests assigned to one age only are here given. The teacher should, of course, beware of inferring that these four problems are the only ones set to a child of these years.

AGE 7 (2)

32. Recognising missing features

Materials Binet's four pictures of faces without mouth, nose, eye, and of a body without arms.

Procedure Say: 'Look at this man's face. Tell me what has been left out'. And, for the others, 'What has been left out here? ' (or 'in this drawing?').

Evaluation Three correct answers with the four pictures are required.

33. Adding three pennies and three halfpennies

Materials Three pennies and three halfpennies, set out separately, but not in a row, nor all the pennies entirely apart from all the halfpennies.

Procedure Say: 'Count this money for me; and tell me how much there is altogether'.

Evaluation No error and no repetition of the instructions are allowed.

34. Stating differences between concrete objects

Procedure Ask: 'What is the difference between a fly and a butterfly?' ('You know what a butterfly is, don't you? And you know what a fly is? ... They are not the same, are they? ... In what way are they not the same?')

The following words are suggested by Binet; and the differences between them should be demanded in order: (i) fly, butterfly; (ii) wood, glass; (iii) paper, cardboard.

Evaluation Two out of three replies must be correct. Any true difference, though trivial, will pass. But if the child repeats the same difference for all pairs, e.g. 'it is larger', it is insufficient. Often a child takes a minute for one reply, but if he takes longer than 2 minutes for all he fails.

35. Writing from dictation Materials Pen, ink, paper. Procedure Say: 'Write this down for me on this piece of paper: 'The pretty little girls' Evaluation The words must be separate, and sufficiently legible, and the spelling sufficiently accurate, for the words to be read by a person who did not know what had been dictated.

7 years
1. Kate is cleverer than May;
May is cleverer than Jane.
Who is the cleverest - Jane, Kate, or May?

8 years
2. The person who stole Brown's purse was neither dark, nor tall, nor clean-shaven. The only persons in the room at the time were:
1. Jones, who is short, dark, and clean-shaven;
2. Smith, who is fair, short, and bearded;
3. Grant, who is dark, tall, but not clean-shaven. Who stole Brown's purse?

9 years
3. Three boys are sitting in a row.
Harry is to the left of Willie;
George is to the left of Harry. Which boy is in the middle?

10 years
4. There are four roads here. I have come from the south and want to go to Melton; the road to the right leads somewhere else; straight ahead it leads only to a farm.
In which direction is Melton - North, South, East, or West?

11 years
5. Where the climate is hot, gum-trees and rubber will grow;
Heather and grass will only grow where it is cold;
Heather and rubber require plenty of moisture;
Grass and gum-trees will grow only in fairly dry regions;
Near the River Amazon it is very hot and very damp.
Which of the above grows there?

12 years
6. Field mice devour the honey stored by the humble-bees; the honey which they store is the chief food of the humble bees.
Near towns there are far more cats than in the open country.
Cats kill all kinds of mice.
Where, then, do you think there are most humble bees - in the neighbourhood of towns or in the open country?

13 years
7. A pound of meat should roast for half-an-hour;
Two pounds of meat should roast for three-quarters of an hour;
Three pounds of meat should roast for one hour;
Eight pounds of meat should roast for two hours and a quarter;
Nine pounds of meat should roast for two hours and a half.
From this can you discover a simple rule by which you can tell from the weight of a joint for how long it should roast?

14 years
8. John said: 'I heard my clock strike yesterday, ten minutes before the first gun fired. I did not count the strokes; but I am sure it struck more than once, and I think it struck an odd number'. John was out all the morning from the earliest hours, and his clock stopped at five to five the same afternoon.
When do you think the first gun fired?

1. Healy Picture Completion Test II (United States Army Scale)

This test consists of ten parts, each representing a scene in a schoolboy's day - for example, he is shown eating breakfast in one part, on his way to school in the next, in his class in a third, and so on. In each part some essential thing is missing and has to be filled in with insets selected from a number by the subject. This test is based on typically American scenes, and may, therefore, in some ways be unfair to English children since the material is less familiar to them.

(Summarised from the Official Report as contained in Vol. 15 of the Memoirs of the National Academy of Science.)

2. Cube construction test (United States Army Scale)

This test consists of three models. Model 1 is a block of wood, 2 by 3 by 3 inches, painted a dark red on the four sides - not on the upper and lower surfaces - and cut to a depth of 2mm, so that it closely resembles a composite of nine small cubes. Nine 1-inch cubes necessary for the construction of model 1 make up the material for the first part of this test. Of these cubes four are painted red on two sides, four on one side, and one is not painted at all. For model 2 there is a block of wood the same size as model 1, but painted on the top as well as the four sides and bottom. There are also nine 1-inch cubes necessary for the construction of model 2. A 2-inch cube (model 3) is unpainted and cut on the six surfaces so that it looks like a composite of eight small cubes. There are also eight 1-inch cubes painted on three sides only for the construction of model 3. The examiner shows model 1, and the small cubes for its construction, pointing out the painted and unpainted sides of both model and cubes. He then puts the cubes together with the minimum number of placings, after which he presents the small cubes in an irregular order to the subject, who is to put them together. The same procedure is followed with models 2 and 3, except that the examiner does not put the blocks together first as in model 1. The scoring of this test is based on the time taken and the number of moves or placings of the cubes. Each model is scored separately and the three scores added together for the total score.

(Summarised from the Official Report as contained in Vol. 15 of the Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences)

3. Cube imitation test (Pintner & Paterson) (4)

In this test, four black 1-inch cubes are placed in a row before the subject. With the fifth cube the examiner taps the four in a given order. The subject then imitates this scheme of taps by tapping the cubes in the same order. There are twelve such patterns of increasing difficulty. The scoring is based on the number of patterns correctly imitated by the subject.

4, 5 & 6. Triangle and diagonal tests, and Healy Puzzle 'A' (Pintner & Paterson) (4)

These are small formboards, all measuring about 17 by 12.8 by 1cm. In the first test there are two recesses - one a rectangle and the other an equilateral triangle - which are to be filled by the subject with four right-angled triangles. In the diagonal test there is one large rectangular recess, which is to be filled with two right-angled triangles, one smaller right-angled triangle, one rectangle and one quadrilateral. Healy Puzzle 'A' also has one large red angular recess only, which is to be filled with five rectangles, two of which are the same size. Scoring in these three tests is based on time taken for a correct solution. No credit is given for partial or incorrect solutions.

The following are illustrative samples, first, of some of the earliest group tests - opposites, analogies and completion - used in this country and elsewhere, and recurring again and again in later compilations, and, secondly, of the later compilation known as the American Army Tests, one of the first compilations or 'batteries' (as they are termed in America) to be used upon an extensive scale. Recent English compilations are represented by the Northumberland and the Chelsea collections.

Instructions Against each printed word write down, in the space left, a word which is the opposite of the printed word. (The instructions are usually accompanied by examples explained upon the blackboard).

With tests of the foregoing and similar types, to secure uniformity of marking, alternative answers, one right and two or three wrong, are sometimes presented to the candidate. When, as in the foregoing example, the candidate is left to discover and write his own answer, different answers of varying adequacy are often given: e.g. as the opposite of 'Common' - 'rare', 'uncommon', 'infrequent', 'seldom', or 'not common' may be suggested; and different examiners might mark these differently. The usual device for overcoming this difficulty is illustrated in the following tests.

Time allowed: 3 minutes.

Instructions In each question a fourth word is wanted which goes with the third word (in capitals) in the same way as the second word (in capitals) goes with the first. Look in the second line of each question for the word that is wanted and draw a line under it. Do not write anything.

Examples:

GOOD is to BAD as WHITE is to CLEAN, BLACK, WICKED, RED.

BAKER is to BREAD as TAILOR is to TAILORESS, CAKE, MAN, CLOTHES.

1. FATHER is to MOTHER as HUSBAND is to RED, WIFE, GREEN, BUSINESS.

2. UP is to DOWN as HIGH is to LOW, BOOK, COAL, DIFFICULTY.

3. PRINCE is to PRINCESS as KING is to DUCHESS, CROWN, QUEEN, ROYAL.

4. PARENT is to CHILD as MOTHER is to WIFE, MAID, DAUGHTER, SERVANT.

5. FIRE is to HOT as ICE is to CREAM, WATER, SOLID, COLD.

6. EAT is to BREAD as DRINK is to DRUNKARD, THROAT, CUP, WATER.

7. SITTING is to CHAIR as SLEEPING is to WALKING, TIRED, BED, DREAM.

8. JANUARY is to DECEMBER as SUNDAY is to TUESDAY, MONDAY, SATURDAY, WINTER.

9. FLYING is to BIRD as CREEPING is to AEROPLANE, SNAIL, GROUND, FLOWER.

10. TEARS are to SORROW as LAUGHTER is to JOY, SMILING, CRYING, MISERY.

11. SIGHT is to PICTURE as HEARING is to SONG, COLOUR, EAR, SEEING.

12. EGG is to BIRD as SEED is to PLOUGHMAN. FOWL, PLANT, WHEAT.

13. REMEMBER is to PAST as ANTICIPATE is to FANCY, FUTURE, FORGET, PRESENT.

14. BEAR is to CUB as DOG is to CAT, SPANIEL, PUPPY, KITTEN.

15. FACT is to FICTION as HISTORIAN is to HISTORY, BOOK. NOVELIST, MATHEMATICIAN.

16. BEAUTY is to ART as TRUTH is to SCIENCE, MUSIC, ARTIST, LIAR.

17. ASLEEP is to AWAKE as DEAD is to HEAD, CORPSE, ALIVE, MORTALITY.

18. FOOD is to MAN as FUEL is to WOMAN, STEAM, ENGINE, VAPOUR.

19. SKY is to GROUND as CEILING is to GAS, WALL, FLOOR, CHANDELIER.

20. SWEET is to HONEY as SOUR is to SUGAR, SALT, VINEGAR, PEPPER.

21. HORSE is to MULE as DOCILE is to RIDER, STUBBORN, DONKEY, MAN.

22. WHEN is to WHERE as TIME is to HOW, WHY, SPACE, LENGTH.

23. MOTIVE is to METHOD as WHY is to WHERE, MANNER, REASON, HOW.

24. CAUSE is to EFFECT as DISEASE is to REASON, CONSEQUENCE, DEATH, LIFE.

25. THE DAY BEFORE YESTERDAY is to THE DAY AFTER TOMORROW as SATURDAY is to SUNDAY, MONDAY, WEDNESDAY, FRIDAY.

Seven problems only are given from a test-sheet of twenty-five.

Instructions Underline the word, phrase, or number that makes the best sense, wherever there are three printed one above the other. [In this web version the alternatives are presented in brackets.]

1. Grass is (green, wet, blue,) but the sky is (green, wet, blue.)

2. The man (fell rode climbed) off his bicycle and (cured broke changed) his arm.

3. I saw a beggar in the (street hotel parlour) and (owed showed gave) him sixpence to (steal sell buy) some food.

4. If (Brown Robinson Smith) runs faster than Jones, and Jones runs faster than Brown, then Smith runs (slowest fastest backwards) of the three.

5. If today were (Friday, Saturday, Sunday,) then the day (before after preceding) tomorrow would be (Thursday. Tuesday. Wednesday.)

6. It has been argued that Mahomed was (once both either) an enthusiast or an (ignoramus; imposter; evangelist;) and, were this true, those may (who may will) deny that (Mahomedannism Christianity he) was an (infidel insincerity enthusiast) would be forced to conclude that he (must/should/could not) have been an imposter.

7. A man, writing on 1st January 1922, said: 'My sister, who (died/was born/was married) on 13th November 1898, 1858, 1900, will be (twenty-five thirty-three thirty-four) years old next (year.' November.' month.')

The following extracts show the type of problem used in each of the eight tests, and the general nature of the instructions. This scheme of tests has formed a model for innumerable sets of group tests. As illustrated by this early experiment, many defects in the test material and in the general form of the examination will be obvious to the reader, many of which have been variously amended in subsequent forms of such tests.

Test 1

The first page of the candidate's booklet contained rubrics and diagrams, as illustrated below.

The headings having been filled, the examiner commences with the following instructions:

1. Attention! Attention always means 'Pencils up.' Look at the circles at 1. When I say 'go', but not before, make a cross in the first circle and also a figure 1 in the third circle. Go! (Allow not over 5 seconds).

4. Attention! Look at 4. When I say 'go' make a figure 1 in the space which is in the circle, but not in the triangle or square, and also make a figure 2 in the space which is in the triangle and circle, but not in the square. Go! (Allow not over 10 seconds).

(NB Examiner. In reading 5, don't pause at the word CIRCLE as if ending a sentence.)

5. Attention! Look at 5. If a machine gun can shoot more bullets a minute than a rifle, then (when I say 'go') put a cross in the second circle; if not, draw a line under the word No. Go! (Allow not over 10 seconds).

Test 2

Instructions Get the answers to these examples as quickly as you can. Use the side of this page to figure on if you need to.

Samples:

1. How many are five men and ten men? Answer (..15..)

2. If you walk 4 miles an hour for 3 hours, how far do you walk? Answer (..12..)

1. How many are thirty men and seven men? Answer (.....)

4. Mike had twelve cigars. He bought three more, and then smoked six. How many cigars did he have left? Answer (.....)

5. A company advanced 5 miles and retreated 3 miles. How far was it then from its first position? Answer (.....)

Test 3

Instructions This is a test of common sense. Below are sixteen questions. Three answers are given to each question. You are to look at the answers carefully; then make a cross in the square before the best answer to each question, as in the sample:

Why do we use stoves? Because
they look well.
they keep us warm.
they are black.

Here the second answer is the best one and is marked with a cross.

Begin with No. 1 and keep on until time is called.

1. Cats are useful animals because
they catch mice.
they are gentle.
they are afraid of dogs.

4. Why judge a man by what he does rather than by what he says? Because
what a man does shows what he really is.
it is wrong to tell a lie.
a deaf man cannot hear what is said.

5. If you were asked what you thought of a person whom you didn't know, what should you say?
I will go and get acquainted.
I think he is all right.
I don't know him and can't say.

Test 6

Instructions Look at each row of numbers below, and on the two dotted lines write the two numbers that should come next.

Test 7

Instructions In each of the lines below, the first two words are related to each other in some way. What you are to do in each line is to see what the relation is between the first two words, and underline the word in heavy type that is related in the same way to the third word. Begin with No. 1 and mark as many sets as you can before time is called.

Samples:
Sky - blue :: grass - table green warm big.
Fish - swims :: man - paper time walks girl.
Day - night :: white - red black clear pure.

1. Gun - shoots :: knife - RUN CUTS HAT BIRD.
2. Ear - hear :: eye - TABLE HAND SEE PLAY.
3. Dress - woman :: feathers - BIRD NECK FEET BILL.
4. Handle - hammer :: knob - KEY ROOM SHUT DOOR,
5. Shoe - foot :: hat - COAT NOSE HEAD COLLAR.

Instructions Notice the sample sentence:

The correct word is ears, because it makes the truest sentence. In each of the sentences below you have four choices for the last word. Only one of them is correct. In each sentence draw a line under the one of these four words which makes the truest sentence. If you cannot be sure, guess. The two samples are already marked as they should be.

Samples:
People hear with the eyes ears nose mouth.
France is in Europe Asia Africa Australia.

1. America was discovered by Drake Hudson Columbus Balboa.
2. Pinochle is played with rackets cards pins dice.
3. The most prominent industry of Detroit is automobiles brewing flour packing.
4. The Wyandotte is a kind of horse fowl cattle granite.
5. The US School for Army Officers is at Annapolis West Point New Haven Ithaca.

These tests were six in number, arranged in a small booklet. The first part of the booklet contained detailed instructions and sample exercises, and the latter part the tests proper. Examples of each are given below.

Test B1

Cross out plainly the 'extra' word in each of the following lines:

Test B2

Give the number that comes next in each of the following lines:

Test B3

Cross out plainly the 'extra' number in each of the following lines:

Test B4

From the above diagram answer the following questions:

What is Frank's surname?
What relation is Elizabeth to John?
What relation is Elizabeth to Frank?
What relation is Elizabeth to old Mr Jones
How many aunts has Frank?
How many uncles has Fred?
Who are Frank's grandparents?

Test B5 Part I

In your mind (without writing them down) you have to arrange the five words in each line below in the proper order and then underline the middle word of this order:

Test 6

In each foreign sentence underline the word which corresponds to the underlined word in the English sentence:

This set contains four tests, first used by Dr Ballard in the schools of the Chelsea Division of London. The first test is a cipher test; and is the only one for which a time limit is applied. The second is intended to gauge the pupils' power of understanding words. The third consists of Dr Ballard's well-known absurdity tests in a revised form. The fourth is an orientation test, suggested by investigations of Dr Lewis and Mr Hugh Gordon.

Abbreviated examples are given below. The detailed instructions are omitted or abridged.

Test I: Cipher

(Ten minutes)

Answer these questions:

1. C,n p;gs fiy?

2. W-,t c:l:!r ;s gr,ss?

25. ;f , m,n st,rts d;gg;ng ,t n::n w-,t t;m. w;ll ;t b. w-.n -. -,s w:rk.d f:r f;v. -:!rs?

Test II: Meanings of words

Look at this sentence: World, football, marble, melon are all (solid, eatable, round, small). Only one of the four words in brackets would make the sentence true - 'round'. Answer the first eight questions by writing down for each one the word that makes the sentence true.

1. Honey, jam, saccharine, treacle are all (liquid, sweet, sticky, manufactured).

8. Birthdays, pain, error, death are all (disagreeable, inevitable, interchangeable, unconquerable).

Now work the rest of the paper.

22. When the moon grows larger it waxes, when it gets smaller it ...... What is the missing word?

25. Which of these words means the largest number of things: cabs, barrows, trams, vehicles, carriages, omnibuses, carts, motorcars?

Test III: Absurdities

After each statement there are four tries (A, B, C, D) at saying what is foolish in it. Find out which of the four is the best.

1. A boy who wanted to go to a cinema, but had no money, thought it would be a good plan to walk in backwards, for the man at the door would think he was going out, and would not ask for his ticket. Foolish because:

A. You cannot go in without a ticket.
B. The boy was trying to cheat.
C. The door keeper would see that he was moving inwards.
D. Cinemas are bad for the eyes.

E. It said: 'Eat less bread', not 'Eat less buns'.
F. He could not eat less bread by going into a teashop than by not going in.
G. Nobody ate more war bread than he could help.
H. If you eat too little bread, you will become ill.

W. The boys could not hold their breath so long.
X. It is unhealthy to stop breathing.
Y. They ought to have started together.
Z. The second boy won.

1. Draw the capital letter F as it would appear if it were printed upside down.

3. If a boy stands on his head with his face to the south, where will his right hand point?

4. If these six letters were seen reflected in a mirror, some would look the same as they do here and some would look different. Write down those that would look the same: S P M V N H.

Name by letters all the people you see drawn here whose left leg is nearer the beginning of the line (nearer the X) than the right leg. (Six drawings follow showing a boy in various positions, walking to the right or to the left, towards the reader or away from him, and standing on his head facing the reader or with his back to him.)

The testing of specific abilities generally requires laboratory apparatus and a laboratory technique such as does not lend itself to simple description. The following, however, is one of the simplest tests available.

Test of mechanical memory (9)

Material The following lists of concrete and abstract monosyllables:

Three-term lists
Concrete: Street Ink Lamp
Abstract: Time Art Route

Four-term lists
Concrete: Spoon Horse Chair Stone
Abstract: Phase Work Truth Thing

Five-term lists
Concrete: Ground Pen Clock Boy Chalk
Abstract: Tact Scope Proof Scheme Form

Six-term lists
Concrete: Desk Milk Hand Card Floor Cat
Abstract: Space Creed Pride Guile Pledge Cue

Seven-term lists
Concrete: Ball Sponge Glass Hat Fork Stove Post
Abstract: Craft Myth Rate Cause Style Youth Mood

Eight-term lists
Concrete: Coat Girl House Salt Glove Watch Box Mat
Abstract: Law Thought Plot Glee Life Rhythm Faith Mirth

To test sheer rote memory meaningless 'nonsense syllables' are frequently used e.g. 'jad, mig, dep'; to test logical memory, words suggesting obvious connections e.g. 'grass, green, blue, sky, star, moon, sun'.

Method For group tests the lists are simply recited once to the children, the words being enunciated at the rate of one per second. Before each list is given, the examinees are notified of the number of words to be given. After each list has been read, the subject writes down as many words as he can remember upon prepared blanks.

For individual tests it is best to allow the subject to see the words one by one, and one at a time. by means of some simple exposure apparatus. Mechanical appliances, working accurately to time, are generally used; but a sheet of cardboard with a slot in it rather larger than the words may be used, moved over the page so as to screen all but the word shown. The experimenter reads the words as each is shown, and the child pronounces them with him, so that he simultaneously sees, hears, and utters each list.

Evaluation The simplest method of marking is to count up the number of words correctly reproduced from memory. Various methods of classifying errors have been suggested, but are not essential unless a detailed psychological analysis is to be undertaken. If the lists are redictated and again reproduced after a larger interval - of a day, week or fortnight - some relative measure of 'long-distance memory' is obtained.

The following examples are selected to illustrate how the principle of an age scale may be applied to the testing of scholastic attainments. The first test - for mechanical reading - is given in full. The figures at the side indicate how the results are marked; a child who reads thirty-five words out of the whole list - e.g. down to 'return' but no further - scores a 'mental age' for mechanical reading of 7.5 years.

(i) Reading (Graded Vocabulary Test)

With two following tests the words and problems for one age only are here extracted. Ten words or ten sums alone are, of course, insufficient to determine the mental age.

(ii) Spelling (Graded Vocabulary Test)

Age 7

(iii) Arithmetic (Graded Oral Test: Mental)

Age 7

1. My brother has picked six nuts, my sister has picked ten, and I have picked eighteen. How many have we got altogether?

2. Twelve girls have a farthing each. How many pennies is that?

3. How many ½d. stamps can I buy for 9d.?

4. I started with fourteen marbles, and I have won twenty-six. How many have I now?

5. I have 2s. to divide among four children. How much should each have if all are to have the same amount?

6. How many days are there in six weeks?

7. My brother is 4 feet high. How many inches is that?

8. On a tram there were fifty people who each paid 1d. fare. How much (in shillings and pence) did the conductor take altogether?

9. If treacle were 8d. a pound, how much would ¾Ib. cost?

10. Yesterday we went blackberrying. I picked twenty-one berries, and my brother ate twelve of them. How many were left?

The following scheme of tests, devised at the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, illustrates the method of testing for two particular occupations.

I. Graded tests of intelligence
(1) Discriminating opposites and synonyms (alternative answers given).
(2) Analogies (alternative answers given, one correct and three incorrect for each problem).
(3) Mixed sentences (the examinee being required to indicate the truth or falsity of the rearranged sentences).
(4) Completion of sentences (the examinee being required to find the missing words).

II. Graded Tests of Educational Attainments
(1) Spelling.
(2) Arithmetic.

III. Tests of linguistic ability and general information
(1) Synonyms. (The examinee is required to think of and write down a word of similar meaning for each of those given. The given words are chosen to throw light not so much upon intelligence as upon range of vocabulary and literary precision, and incidentally upon certain temperamental and moral qualifications).
(2) Definitions. (The examinee is required to give the meaning of simple technical words. The words are especially chosen to test familiarity with some twenty-five fields of knowledge, one easy and one hard term being chosen for each).

The foregoing are group tests.

IV. Tests of typewriting and shorthand writing

A. Shorthand
(1) Graded Speed Tests. These consist of a specially prepared series of six passages containing 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, and 160 words. The passages are arranged so that each is divided into twelve equal sections; and each section is to be read within the space of 5 seconds, so that the entire passage occupied 1 minute. This device makes it possible for the experimenter, with the aid of a watch showing seconds, to read the passage at a uniform speed and at the specific rate. The candidates transcribe their shorthand notes back into longhand; and from the proportion of correct words in each of the passages it is possible to compute, by means of an arbitrary formula, the approximate speed at which the individual could take down dictated matter in shorthand.
(2) Outline Tests. This consists of a series of fifty somewhat unusual words graded in difficulty and exemplifying the more important principles of Pitman's shorthand. There is no time limit to this test. The candidates transcribe their outlines back into longhand; and the results are marked both for accuracy of outline and correctness of transcript (disregarding spelling).

B. Typewriting
(1) Speed tests
(i) Typing from Memory (with time limit). The candidate is required to type over and over again for two minutes a short sentence known by heart, such as 'Mary had a little lamb'.
(ii) Typewriting from copy (with amount limit). The candidate is given a printed passage to copy at maximum speed on the typewriter; and the time is recorded with a stopwatch.

(2) Tests of accuracy and display
(i) Accuracy. The candidate is given a manuscript containing a large number of errors and of corrections inserted after the fashion of a corrected printer's proof; and is required carefully to type from this a fair copy. The result is marked both for speed and for accuracy.
(ii) Display. A long announcement of a meeting, typed without capitals or punctuation or any form of arrangement or indentation, is given to the candidate; and the candidate is required to retype the matter, arranging it as suitably as possible. The result is marked for excellence of display.
(iii) Tabulating. A complicated list of data typed consecutively is given to the candidate, who is required to retype and rearrange it in tabular form, adding certain simple calculations.

(3) Manuscript Reading. Two letters are given to the candidate, written in a very illegible hand; the candidate is required to re-transcribe them. The test is marked for accuracy and speed.

The foregoing tests for shorthand typists are largely tests of acquirement; the following tests for dressmakers' apprentices are intended primarily to measure natural aptitude.

The analysis of the occupational requirements upon which the tests are based is shown in the following scheme:

Psychological factors determining efficiency of dressmakers' apprentices

In devising tests to measure the capacities that were found by analysis to be desirable for dressmakers' apprentices, special attention was given to three conditions:

(1) That the tests should not include needlework or any process actually used in the trade.
(2) That the tests could be applied both as group tests and as individual tests.
(3) That the tests should not involve elaborate or expensive apparatus.

The tests actually administered may be grouped according to the analysis set out above.

(I) Speed tests

(a) Tests for maximum speed:

(1) Drawing circles at maximum speed.
(2) Threading beads at maximum speed.
(3) Pricking with a mounted needle at maximum speed.
(4) Knotting wool at maximum speed.

(1) Knotting wool with direction, 'there is no hurry'.
(2) Knotting wool with distraction.

(a) Tests for perception of equal distances:

(1) Discrimination of parallel lines.
(2) Dividing lines in half without measuring.
(3) Drawing parallel lines without measuring.

(1) Selecting a line of remembered length from several alternatives.
(2) Selecting a figure of remembered form from several alternatives.
(3) Selecting a remembered colour from several alternatives.

(1) Pencilled dots are made at certain points as accurately as possible.
(2) Pin pricks from underneath are made at certain points as accurately as possible.

(1) Folding tissue paper under standardised conditions.

(a) Tests for memory of complicated instructions:

(1) 'Directions' test. (2) Reproduction after an interval of a read description of a dress.

(1) Enumeration of details of a dress (shown in a fashion plate) directly it is removed.

(1) Binet-Simon tests (London Revision). (2) Group tests (National Institute Series, No. 33).

Footnotes

(1) Dr Burt desires to acknowledge the help he has received from psychological and educational colleagues in the selection and description of these tests.

(2) Reprinted, by permission of the author and publisher, from Burt's Mental and Scholastic Tests. PS King & Son, pp. 43-46. (Discussion of details of procedure is here omitted.)

(3) The above extracts give only one test problem for each year, and are therefore insufficient for practical use. The complete scale is given in Burt's article on 'The Development of Reasoning in School Children', Journ. Exp. Pedagogy, VI., 1921, p. 121 (with five test problems for each year), and in an abridged form in Burt's Handbook of Tests for Use in Schools. PS King and Son, pp. 91-94.

(4) Pintner and Paterson, A Scale of Performance Tests. D Appleton & Co., New York, 1917. pp. 67, 69, and pp. 40-53 (Quoted by permission of the authors, and of Messrs D Appleton & Co., of New York, the owners of the copyright.)

(5) This and the following series of text problems are from collections of group tests prepared for the National Institute of Industrial Psychology.

(6) Volume 15 of the Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences Washington, USA.

(7) Professor Godfrey Thomson. British Journal of Psychology, Vol. XII, Part 3, pages 201 et seq. Reprinted by permission of Professor G Thomson and Mr FC Bartlett, editor of the British Journal of Psychology, and Messrs Harrap & Co. Ltd, the present publishers.

(8) Reprinted, by permission of the author and publisher, from PB Ballard's Group Tests of Intelligence Hodder and Stoughton. pp. 117-128.

(9) Reprinted, by permission of the author and publishers, fromWhipple's Manual of Mental and Physical Tests. Warwick and York. Baltimore. 1910. Test 38. pp.356 et seq.

(10) Reprinted, by permission of the author and publishers, from Burt's Handbook of Tests for use in Schools PS King and Son. pp. 2, 3, 16, 19, et seq.

(11) From 'Tests for Clerical Occupations', Journ. Nat. Inst. Ind. Psychol., Vol I, No. i. pp. 23-27. (Quoted by permission of the Council of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology.)

(12) From 'Vocational Tests for Dressmakers Apprentices' by Winifred Spielman. Journ. Nat. Inst. Ind. Psychol., I, vii. 1923. pp. 277 et seq. (Quoted by permission of the Council of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology),