Hadow (1924)

(page numbers in brackets)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages (i-xii)
Preface, Contents, Membership, Analysis, Introduction
Chapter I (1-61)
History of development of psychological tests
Chapter II (62-107)
Summary of evidence
Chapter III (108-145)
Possible applications, conclusions and recommendations
Appendix I (146-149)
List of witnesses
Appendix II (149-164)
Recent experiments
Appendix III (164-183)
Use of tests in foreign countries
Appendix IV (183-185)
Standardisation and norms (Cyril Burt)
Appendix V (185-189)
Correlation in mental testing (Cyril Burt)
Appendix VI (190-191)
Grades in US schools (AE Twentyman)
Appendix VII (191-199)
Recent publications
Appendix VIII (199-225)
Examples of tests
Appendix IX (225-238)
General, special and group abilities
Index (239-248)

London: HM Stationery Office

[page 164 cont.]

It is reported that in 1919 admissions to 'High Schools' (i.e. Universities and Technical and Commercial Colleges) were made largely on the basis of psychological tests.

An order of the Ministry of Education dated 15 May 1922 made it permissible for Local Education Authorities to use in Elementary and Higher Elementary Schools a form of description of each individual pupil which was to serve as a guide in the selection of a higher type of school or a trade. This 'Schülerbeschreibung' was intended to give detailed information regarding the physical characteristics of the pupil, his progress in the various school studies and his mental and psychical characteristics. It was to be filled in by the teacher and used experimentally during the school years 1922-23 and 1923-24. (1)

The Ministry of Social Administration at Vienna, established on 1 January 1918, undertakes to give vocational guidance to children leaving school. Important researches and experiments in the use of vocational tests are conducted in the psychological laboratories attached to the Universities of Vienna and Innsbruck. (2)

(1) Volkserziehung for 1 September 1922, Stuck, xvii.

(2) Fontègne, L'Orientation professionelle, Paris, 1923, pp. 136-137. International Labour Review for May 1922, Vol. V, p. 713.

[page 165]

Tests of intelligence are used experimentally in a few elementary and secondary schools. They are employed in Brussels by Dr Demoor as an adjunct to the examination of mentally defective children. (1)

The Intercommunal Bureau for the vocational guidance and apprenticeship of the youths and girls of Greater Brussels was originally opened in July 1914 on the initiative of the Société Belge de Pédotechnie. It was re-opened after the war in December 1919. It consists of a library, a laboratory and three branches, medical, psychological, and technical, each under a director. The director of the technical branch is also general director of the bureau which is supported by the several communes of Greater Brussels, each of which has agreed to contribute for five years the income accruing from an annual rate of two centimes per inhabitant. The different communes of Greater Brussels are now establishing their own bureaux for educational guidance equipped with the services of medical, psychological and educational experts. These work under the general supervision of the Intercommunal Bureau, the functions of which include the instruction of the communal bureaux in the principles of vocational guidance, the publication of tabular statements showing the various forms of ability required for different occupations, and the examination of special cases at the request of any of the communal bureaux. The general system of vocational guidance is based on an elaborate medical examination, a full psychological investigation, and a detailed report to a questionnaire from the teacher. A systematic 'follow up' is carried out in order to test the accuracy of the tests employed and to enable modifications to be introduced where necessary. The Bureau is assisted by a Committee. (2)

The National Association for Vocational Education at Shanghai, was founded 'to establish proper relations between education and vocation'. The Association conducts research into educational and industrial questions and encourages vocational guidance with the aid of psychological tests. Several Vocational Schools have recently been established in China. (3)

(1) From information supplied by Monsieur AG Christiaens, cf. J Demoor et T Jonkheere, Science de l'education, Brussels, Lamartin, 1922.

(2) Bulletin Trimestriel de l'Office Intercommunal, etc., Brussels, Lamartin, 1923, cf. also Journal of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, Vol. I, p. 31 and p. 212.

(3) From information supplied by Dr GH Miles.

[page 166]

The Binet-Simon Scale was translated into Czech with slight modifications in 1911, and has been extensively used in the Bohemian Paedological Institute (Cesky Pedologicky Ustav) founded at Prague in 1910. The Institute is now organised in four sections, as follows:

(a) The Paedometric Section , which takes elaborate medical measurements, etc;
(b) The Educational Section;
(c) The Psychological Section;
(d) The Pathological Section (for examining and treating children who are mentally or physically defective).

Similar Institutes have recently been established at Brno (Brünn) and Liberec (Reichenberg). (1)

Centres for vocational guidance were established from 1920 at Prague, Brno (Brünn), and five other towns.

It is reported that in 1920 over 1,000 children were examined in these centres partly by means of psychological tests.

The headquarters are at Prague, and the work comprises research into mental and physical capacities and abilities, and provides for examination of the capacities required for various branches of industry and for the army. The Prague Office is divided into a Vocational Section and a Students' Section. Two thousand and seventy-eight young persons were tested in 1923. (2)

The Institute for Applied Psychology at Prague, organised in 1921 as a department of the Masaryk Academy of Labour, is conducting researches in regard to vocational tests and the requirements of various industries. (3)

In connection with the Municipal Labour Exchange in Copenhagen, a Laboratory for Vocational Testing is being organised for boys and girls. The expenses are met by the municipalities of Copenhagen and Friederiksberg, aided by a State Grant. The Laboratory will be opened on 1 June 1924.

(1) Article by Dr Kyril Stejskal in Zeit. für pädagogische Psychologie, 23 Jahrgang. Heft. 11-12 November-December, 1922, pp. 453-458.

(2) From information supplied by Dr Mauer.

(3) From information supplied by Prof. Forster. Accounts of the work of this Institute are published in Nova Prace, the organ of the Academy of Labour. cf. also Ceska Technika for June 1921.

[page 167]

The Danish Chamber of Manufacturers and the Employers' Federation are considering the question of establishing a Laboratory for vocational testing in association with the Technical College at Copenhagen. (1)

A psychological laboratory for vocational guidance has been established at Helsingfors, primarily for the selection of apprentices for the State railways. The work is maintained by the Department of Professional Teaching for State Railways. (2)

Though Binet and Simon were Frenchmen their celebrated scale does not appear to be very extensively applied in France outside of Paris and some of the larger towns, where it is chiefly used for segregating defective children for special treatment. (3)

At Bordeaux there is a private organisation, the Chambre des Métiers, which carries out psychological work in vocational guidance. (4)

At Nantes l'Office Regional de la main d'oeuvre gives vocational guidance and assists in the placing of apprentices. It is supported by grants from the Ministry of Labour, the City of Nantes, the local Chamber of Commerce and the Technical Educational Authorities. The Office state in a recent report that the main conclusions arrived at as a result of their application of psychological tests for purposes of vocational guidance are as follows:

(a) That vocational guidance is essentially a work of education, which, in order to produce its full results, ought to be applied to the pupil many years before he leaves school;
(b) That school records are essential and should be developed along definitely psychological lines;
(c) That success in vocational guidance depends on the due co-ordination of the efforts of teachers, psychologists, doctors and employers.

(4) J Fontègne, L'Orientation Professionelle, p. 144, cf. also La Rose des metiers, Paris, 1922, by F Mauvezin, the Director of the Bordeaux Chambre des Métiers.

[page 168]

(d) That the whole movement for vocational guidance should be centralised and a clearing house for information established. (1)

At Paris the Institut Lannelongue conducts inter alia researches bearing on the problems of vocational psychology.

At Strasbourg there is a special Bureau for vocational guidance for Alsace and Lorraine under the direction of Professor J Fontègne. (2)

The idea of using psychological tests as an aid to vocational guidance appears to be gaining ground in France. Professor J Fontègne advocates the use of such tests in the various 'Offices régionales d'orientation professionnelle', which are now being organised throughout France, with the encouragement of the Technical Department of the Ministry of Public Instruction. (3)

Tests of intelligence and standardised scholastic tests are extensively used in various towns, e.g. Berlin, Charlottenburg, Hamburg, Altona, Göttingen, (4) Hanover, (5) Breslau, Guben in Brandenburg, (6) Freiburg in Breisgau, Erfurt, Dresden and Schneeberg in Saxony, (7) in connection with the selection of children from elementary schools for admission to secondary, quasi-secondary, and technical schools. In Hamburg, for example, over 1,000 children of ten years of age have been examined every year in the spring since 1918 by means of intelligence tests with a view to transfer to certain higher classes and schools. (8) At Altona the tests have been used to assist in the classification of children of about seven years of age in elementary schools. (9) In Berlin performance and other tests have been em-

(1) From information supplied by Dr GH Miles.

(2) Fontègne, op. cit., p. 6. The scheme of the psychological examination in use at this Bureau is printed in Fontègne, op. cit., pp. 235-236.

(3) Fontègne, op. cit., pp. 58-75, cf. also E Gaultier's article on Vocational Guidance in International Labour Review, Vol. V, No. 5. (May, 1922), p. 714.

(4) R Peter und W Stern; die Auslese befahigter Volksschuler in Hamburg, Leipzig, A. Barth, 1922, passim.

(5) cf. article by Dr W Hische, die Auslese der Begabten in Hanover in Praktische Psychology for February 1921, pp. 129-142.

(6) cf. article by G Hirsch in Praktische Psychologie for June 1922, pp. 268-278.

(7) Article by A Schäwrig, Zwei Begabungs-prufungen. in Zeit. fur Pädogogische Psychologie, pp. 430-441.

(8) T Fontègne, L'Orientation professionelle, p. 130, Paris, 1923.
Peter und Stein, op. cit., pp. 157-161 and passim, cf. also British Journal of Psychology, Vol. XI, Part 2 for January, 1921, pp. 251-253.

(9) W. Stern, Das psychologische Laboratorium der Hamburgischen Universität, Quelle und Meyer, Leipzig, 1922, pp. 33-34.

[page 169]

ployed to select pupils of 13 to 19 years of age with special gifts for artistic design. (1)

At Berlin Dr Curt Piorkowski, Director of the Orga Institute, acting at the special request of the Civic Educational authorities, has for some years past applied psychological tests to the candidates for entrance to the two Secondary Schools for exceptionally gifted boys, (Begabtenschulen) established in 1917 by the City of Berlin. There is very keen competition for entrance to these schools. Dr Piorkowski, in association with Professor Moede, the Director of the Psychotechnical Laboratory at Charlottenburg, applied certain test to all candidates with a view to selecting the most suitable. The fundamental requirements expected of all candidates were adequate power of concentration, good memory for logical construction, ability to give clear and unambiguous decisions regarding given situations, and creative imagination. The psychological test employed were specially designed to discover the existence of these four capacities, and were expressly devised with the object of determining natural abilities, not knowledge acquired at school. It is stated that the candidates selected by this method have already displayed undoubted signs of high promise. Nevertheless, it is evident that definite inferences cannot be drawn until the lapse (say) of ten years, when a review of the progress made by these boys will be possible. (2)

Similar tests have been applied to candidates for the Berlin Begabtenschulen for girls.

'Intelligence' tests have also been used experimentally in the examination for admission to a Training College for Women Teachers at Hamburg. (3)

Brief accounts of some typical institutes and other organisations for research on psychological tests with special reference to vocational guidance.

(i) The Psychological laboratories attached to several of the Universities, e.g. Hamburg, (4) are conducting important experiments

(1) Dannenburg's article on Auslese and Berufsberatung der kunstlerisch Begabten in Praktische Psychologie, No. 5 (1920), pp. 150-159.

(2) Moede, Piorkowski and Wolff, die Berliner Begabtenschulen, Beyer, Langensalza, 1919. Zwei Jahre Berliner Begabtenschulen, Erfahrungen ihrer Schulleiter, Hirzel, Leipzig, 1920. cf. also article by Dr Piorkowski in Journal of National Institute of Industrial Psychology, Vol. I., No. 3. (1922), pp. 99, foll. and article by Margaret Steppat in Journal of Experimental Pedagogy, Vol. 6, Nr. 3. (1921).

(3) Article by A Penkert, uber die Anwendung von Tests bei Anfnahmaeprüfungen in ein Hamburger Lehrerinnenseminar published in Hamburger Arbeiten zur Begabungsforschungen, Nr. 11, Leipzig, 1919.

(4) See W Stern, Das psychologische Laboratorium der Hamburgischen Universität, Leipzig, 1922, pp. 25 foll.

[page 170]

in the construction and application of vocational tests and tests of intelligence.

(ii) The Psychological Laboratory of the Vocational Institute at the Technical College, Stuttgart. The Psychological laboratory attached to the Vocational Institute at the Technical College at Stuttgart aims at testing children and adults for occupational fitness. It also tests candidates seeking admission to the technical colleges. It is associated with the Psychological laboratory attached to the local technical college and is maintained by the State of Würtemberg and the City of Stuttgart. (1)

(iii) The Psychotechnical Institute at Charlottenburg. The Psychotechnical Institute attached to the Charlottenburg technical college collaborates with a number of great industrial undertakings such as the Osram, helping them to select and classify their pupils and operators.

The fullest use is made of information such as school records, medical data and so forth. Inquiries are also made regarding the candidate's interests and leisure occupations. Every endeavour is made to secure the co-operation of each applicant in the work of determining his suitability for a future career.

Group tests consisting of modifications of well-known 'intelligence' tests, memory for number, form, and so forth are applied together with tests designed to indicate technical ability. For example, the pupil is shown a drawing and a simple arrangement in levers and his ability to foretell what would happen on moving one of the levers is determined. His mechanical ability is gauged by means of specially designed apparatus which has been standardised and patented. Steadiness of hand is measured by various tests, for example, his ability to pass a thin rod through holes without touching the sides. As the result of the application of a number of such tests a considerable amount of information regarding a pupil's abilities can be obtained, from which a useful forecast of his suitability for engineering work can be prepared.

The candidate's subsequent career is closely followed, and any discrepancies between the results obtained in the psychological laboratory and his actual achievements in school and workshop are most exhaustively examined, the information thus obtained being used to correct future placings, or being made a subject of further research. It is stated that this procedure has the full support and sympathy of the local Trade Unions, which realise that it is to their advantage to have within their organisation only men who are really

(1) From information supplied by Dr GH Miles.

[page 171]

capable. A contribution towards the support of the Institute is voted annually by the Unions, and the satisfactory passing of these tests has been made a condition of apprenticeship.

Similar psychotechnical laboratories have been established a Leipzig, Munich, Frankfort on the Main and other large cities. (1)

(iv) The Orga Institute at Berlin. The work of this Institute recently established in Berlin includes vocational guidance and selection.

The Institute possesses a laboratory, well equipped with apparatus for vocational testing. (2)

(v) The Berlin Institute for Applied Psychology. This Institute, founded in 1906, was amalgamated in 1918 with the Institute of Industrial Psychology, founded in 1916, and is now under the direction of Dr Otto Lipmann.

It serves as a central clearing-house for information regarding the different applications of psychology and possesses a laboratory for research work on psychological tests. (29) It publishes a periodical Zeitschrift für angewandte Psychologie.

(vi) The Institute of Practical Psychology at Halle. This Institute began by giving vocational guidance to disabled soldiers, but now also gives such guidance to normal and abnormal children. Special stress is laid on continued psychological observation of children during their school course. (3)

(vii) Berufsamt der Stadt Berlin (Vocational Bureau of the City of Berlin). In addition to a Statistical Department and an Employment Exchange, the bureau has a Psychological and Medical Department where information concerning each candidate's physical and mental capacities is collected, psychotechnical tests are applied, and medical examinations are carried out.

The Bureau issues leaflets briefly describing occupational conditions and appeals to children and their parents to ask advice when making a choice of vocation in life. It emphasises the need for applying for work and for improving educational attainments. A choice of vocation should be made according to the child's liking for the work, and according to health, physical development, and special aptitudes. The Bureau also suggest that its officials should discuss the matter

(1) Journal of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, Vol. I, p. 16 and pp. 190-192.

(2) Journal of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, Vol I p. 110.

(3) From information supplied by Dr Otto Lipmann.

[page 172]

with parents, taking into account school records and other information about each individual child. The Psychological Section of the Bureau conducts its work as follows:

The applicant has generally decided on the type of work he desires, and the aim of the Bureau is to ascertain the nature of his choice. For this purpose his parents are interviewed, the opinions of his teachers are obtained, and the records of work at school and any outside work accomplished by him are considered. The Bureau state that a critical examination of school records showed that 30 per cent were of very little use and 10 per cent quite useless. This discovery led to the formation of a scheme for keeping definite observation records of each candidate, which were proving to be of real value.

The physical history of each candidate is ascertained from the reports of the School Medical Officer.

Psychological tests of different types are then applied to the candidate on two days, consisting of:

(a) Group 'intelligence' tests to ascertain the level of intelligence together with tests devised to discover occupational wish.
(b) These tests are followed up by individual 'intelligence' tests.

There are similar municipal organisations at Bonn, Dresden, Leipzig and other towns.

(viii) Several great industrial concerns, e.g. the Krupp Company at Essen and the AEG have psychotechnical departments attached to their works in which vocational tests are applied to the operatives. In the same way the Imperial Railways Administration and the Berlin Tramways apply psychological tests to their employees. (2) Similar tests are applied to apprentices in the printing trade at Munich. (3)

(1) From information supplied by Dr GH Miles.

(2) Praktische Psychology, Jahrgang I, pp. 309. foll. and Zeit. fur angewandte Psychologies, Band 18, pp. 107 foll.

(3) A. Huth, Die Münchener Eignungsprüfung fur Buchdrücker, Leipzig, 1922.

[page 173]

Tests of intelligence are applied to pupils entering the Amsterdam Lyceum and several other large Secondary Schools in Holland. Experiments in the use of tests are carried out by Dr Brugmans at the Dr D Bos Foundation of the Pedagogical Institute at Groningen. (1)

The Municipal Bureau for choice of vocations at Amsterdam, founded in 1920, applies intelligence tests to some of the youths and girls seeking vocational guidance.

The Psychotechnical laboratory at Amsterdam, opened in 1921, is a municipal institution connected with the department of public health. Among its functions is the giving of vocational guidance to boys and girls who are about to leave school, and to young persons seeking employment. It also conducts psychological researches bearing on school life and vocational guidance. (2) Vocational and intelligence tests are also used in several denominational bureaux for vocational guidance, e.g. the Central Catholic Bureau at Utrecht.

Tests of Intelligence are at present only used in some psychological laboratories and psychiatrical clinics, e.g. by Professor Ugo Pizzoli in the Institute di Crevalcore near Modena and by Professor de Sanctis in the laboratory of experimental psychology attached to the Royal University of Rome.

The tests are also applied to defective children in several special schools and institutions for such children at Rome under the direction of Professor de Sanctis. (3)

(1) From information supplied by Dr Bokhorst of Amsterdam and Professor Brugmans of Groningen.

(2) From information supplied by Dr van Wayenburg and Miss Kalshoven of Amsterdam.

(3) From information supplied by Professor de Sanctis.

[page 174]

Vocational tests are at present being used experimentally by Prof. de Sanctis at Rome, by Prof. Ugo Pizzoli in the Institute di Crevalcore, and by Professors Gemelli and Corberi at Milan. (1)

The Societá Umanitaria of Milan has a psychotechnical laboratory in connection with its Labour Clinic, at which investigations in the use of vocational tests are carried out. (2)

Researches in the use of vocational tests are also being conducted in the psychotechnical laboratory 'Fr. Menafoglio' attached to the technical school 'Fermo Corni' at Modena. (3)

The Department of Industrial Psychology, established at Tokio in 1921, conducts psychological research and investigates problems of vocational selection.

The Institute of Applied Psychology attached to the University of Tokio is constructing a series of tests for vocational aptitude. (4)

The Aceries Réunies de Burdach-Eich-Dudelange 'ARBED' in Luxembourg, maintain a psycho-physiological laboratory in connection with the Institut Emile Metz, which is a technical school for apprentices in the works. Psychological and physiological tests are applied to all apprentices both on entry and at periods during the course. Careful records are kept of the results obtained by the tests. (5)

A vocational organisation has been established at Christiania, the main work of which at present is the standardisation of tests that are to be used later for vocational guidance and for testing

(1) From information supplied by Professor de Sanctis.

(2) Rivista della Psicologia, Anno XIX (1923), p. 5.

(3) Rivista della Psicologia, Anno XIX (1923) pp. 97-99.

(4) Journal of National Institute of Industrial Psychology, Vol. I, p. 111 (for July, 1922). Fontgène, op. cit., pp. 140-141.
International Labour Review, Vol. V, p. 715 (for May, 1922).

(5) cf. ARBED Oeuvres Sociales, Luxembourg, Imprimerie de la Cour, 1923, pp. 59-61.

[page 175]

officers for subordinate positions in the Navy and Army. The funds are provided by the State University and from private sources, and the naval and military work is paid for by the Ministry of Defence. (1)

Tests of intelligence are at present scarcely used at all in schools, though some attention is now being devoted to them in the Instituto Escuela de Segunda Ensenanza at Madrid. (2)

The Institut D'Orientacio Professional, Calle San Honorato, Barcelona. This Institute which was founded in 1920 receives an annual grant of 20,000 pesetas from the City of Barcelona and a like grant of 20,000 pesetas from the Principality of Catalonia, equivalent to about £1,400 a year. The Director is assisted by a council of fourteen persons, including a chemist, an engineer, a schoolmaster and a schoolmistress, which meets weekly to review the work carried out in the institute. The Institute, which is only open in the evenings, is divided into four departments:

(1) The Medico-Anthropometric Department;
(2) The Psychometric Department;
(3) The Statistical Department;
(4) The Information Department.

Teachers at the public elementary schools advise children of school-leaving age to visit the Institute. The teachers are provided with forms on which they transmit to the Institute the names of each

(1) From information supplied by Dr Martin L Reymont of Christiania.

(2) From information supplied by Senor José Castillejo of Madrid.

[page 176]

applicant with a brief summary of his school career and his mental and moral attainments. Attendance at the institute is optional for school children, but their names cannot be placed on the books of certain labour bureaux until they have received advice from the institute. Youths and girls attending the Technical College at Barcelona are required to undergo examination at the institute if they are not making satisfactory progress in their studies. The department of information records: (a) a resume of the results obtained by the application of the laboratory tests to each applicant, his personal and family history and the advice tendered to him; (b) the economic and social conditions of about 50 occupations and the special physical and mental requirements of each; (c) the names and addresses of the various unions and federations of employers and employees together with the occupations included in each. (1)

There is a Psychological Laboratory at Gothenburg which is engaged in collecting psychological tests and other material for the formation of a Vocational Bureau. Its income is derived from private sources with occasional grants from the Educational Authorities for printing and so forth. (2)

Tests of intelligence are used in a few elementary and secondary schools. For some time past the Institut JJ Rousseau at Geneva, the Pestalozzianum at Berne and the Psychological Institute at the University of Zürich have been conducting experiments in the application of tests of intelligence to school children.

For several years past the Technical Schools at Lausanne, Chaux-de-Fonds and Geneva have been using tests of motor ability and mechanical aptitude as a part of their entrance examinations. (3)

(1) From information supplied by Dr CS Myers. See also Anals de 'Institut d'Orientacio Professional, Barcelona, 1920-1923, passim, and Journal of National Institute of Industrial Psychology, Vol. I, pp. 31-32 and p. 211.

(2) From information supplied by Professor GA Jaederholm, Gothenburg.

(3) From information supplied by Dr E Claparède and others. cf. Fontègne, op. cit., p. 134.

[page 177]

Geneva, Institut JJ Rousseau, Cabinet D'Orientation Professionelle. The work chiefly consists of inquiries in regard to occupations under the following heads:

(1) The study of psychological tests and other means of guidance and selection; (2) The selection of candidates for Technical and Trade Schools; (3) The training of psychologists for work in vocational guidance and for psychotechnical consultation.

The practical work in the Laboratory consists of the construction and development of tests, the study of problems such as educational ability, movements, and the analysis of the physical and mental characteristics of various occupations. The giving of assistance in the practical work of vocational guidance leads up to direct collaboration with employment agencies. (1)

Zürich, Psychotechnisches Institut. This Institute works independently, but receives support from the educational authorities of the Canton of Zurich, and is also closely connected with the university and with the chief local industrial concerns. Its income chiefly consists of fees for services rendered. The vocational work has a twofold aspect: (a) enquiries are made regarding the requirements of the principal occupations of the district. This work has already been carried out by the various local authorities, but the institute has endeavoured to make a more thorough investigation from the psychological standpoint; (b) the institute also examines young persons who desire to enter the various local occupations and gives a report to each candidate. From the information obtained by these examinations and from their knowledge of the state of the neighbouring industries and occupations, and their records of the requirements of each several occupation, the staff of the institute are in a position to give advice as to what occupation a child should take up. The Institute also undertakes a systematic examination of the higher classes of the local elementary schools, with the double aim of selecting promising pupils for promotion or for further education, and for giving vocational guidance to those who will later be leaving school. (2)

(1) From information supplied by Dr GH Miles, cf. also Fontègne, op. cit.. pp. 61-63, and pp. 132-134.
International Labour Review, Vol. V, p. 714. L'Education en Suisse, Geneva, 1914, pp. 104-105.

(2) From information supplied by Dr GH Miles.

[page 178]

The use of the tests has not yet been made official by the Education Authorities of any one State, but those of many States have taken much interest in them and are developing their own tests and comparing the results with one another. For example, Wisconsin has a 'supervisor of educational measurements', Maryland has been giving tests in the rural districts and providing demonstrations for the use of specialists; Michigan uses the tests in rural schools for the purpose of selecting children for special classes. The interest in the tests originated in the higher educational institutions such as Universities and Normal Schools and has spread downwards to the ordinary schools until in almost every State some form of the tests is now being employed. In one State, for example, rudimentary tests have been in use for ten years, and have resulted in appreciable improvement in the children's work. The National Research Council, consisting of the most distinguished psychological specialists in America, and established by voluntary effort as the outcome of the activities of the several States, has constructed and standardised a set of tests, known as the National Intelligence Tests. Another organisation due to private initiative is the Psychological Corporation, founded early in 1922, which includes among its directors most of the leading psychologists in the United States. (1) One of its objects is to render expert services involving the application of psychology to educational problems and by research to improve and standardise tests to aid in the problem of selection for general intelligence and for special aptitudes.

In a memorandum sent to the Consultative Committee by members of the Department of Psychology at Teachers College, Columbia University, it is stated that 'intelligence' tests (2) are used for the following purposes:

(1) In Special Classes for Backward or Mentally Dull Pupils. In many school systems where such classes have been organised, selection for them is based entirely on a mental examination which is usually of the kind such as may be obtained by the use of the Binet Scale or some similar intensive method of examination. The tendency now in segregating children for such classes is to use group tests or other objective means of measurement rather than the judgement of the teacher, though the latter is never wholly neglected.

(1) Journal of the National Institute of Industrial Psychology, Vol. I, No. 2, p. 76.

(2) Cf The Twenty-first Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education, Intelligence Tests and their use, passim. Public School Publishing Co., Bloomington, Illinois.

[page 179]

(2) In Special Classes for Exceptionally Bright Children. In school systems where such classes have been organised up to the present, 'intelligence' tests of some kind have generally been employed in the selection of children, and the use of such tests is stated to stimulate greatly the interest of teachers in the exceptionally gifted children.

(3) In the General Classification of School Children. 'intelligence' tests, especially group tests, are being more and more used to classify the ordinary children in schools so that pupils of like mental gifts may be brought together in one class. In many cases where there are several sections of the same class the division into sections is based on the results of 'intelligence' tests, as it has been found that a short and scientifically not very accurate test often serves for a rough classification of pupils into two or more groups. Where this has been done, the teachers report favourably.

(4) In Psychological Clinics. Clinics for the more intensive study of individual cases have been established in connection with Universities, hospitals, penal and charitable institutions and also in some public school systems. These clinics make extensive use of all kinds of psychological and standardised educational tests in their study of individual cases, and those attached to the Universities train students in the use of such tests.

(5) In Bureaux of Educational Research. These bureaux, developed in connection with various city school systems and with some State Departments of Education, make wide use of 'intelligence' and standardised scholastic tests and supervise the application of such tests in the school system. Many of them carry on a certain amount of testing in schools as part of their regular routine work.

(6) In Universities and Colleges. Many institutions of academic rank use 'intelligence' tests in addition to the usual entrance examinations. The results obtained by the application of intelligence tests to entrants at Columbia University are reported to have been particularly satisfactory. (1) Even Universities which do not apply tests as an entrance requirement nevertheless find the results of such tests valuable to assist them in the guidance of the students during their College career.

(7) In the Army. More than 1,000,000 soldiers were tested by psychologists during the Great War and the results obtained have stimulated research and led to a better understanding of group tests and their possibilities.

The tabular statement on the following pages, kindly prepared for the Committee by Dr Mary Whitley, gives some idea of the extent to which intelligence tests are being used in municipal systems of Education throughout the country.

(1) See Prof. EL Thorndike's articles in Journal of Educational Research for May 1920 and September 1921.

[pages 180-181]

Tabular Statement

[page 182]

The Bureau of Vocational Guidance at Harvard University, founded in 1917, is probably typical of a large class of academic institutes for vocational guidance and vocational selection. The Bureau gives information to many teachers and others who write for information about vocational guidance, and is frequently consulted by individuals requiring vocational advice. Similar instruction in Research on Vocational Psychology is carried on in most of the Universities and other institutions of academic rank in the United States, e.g. Columbia University, New York, Bryn Mawr, Chicago, Michigan, Yale, the Carnegie Institute of Technology at Pittsburgh. (1)

The American Vocational Guidance Association has adopted a number of principles for vocational guidance, from which we quote the following passage:

'For all children before the school leaving age there should be provided a wide variety of try-out experiences in academic and aesthetic work, gardening, simple processes with tools and machines, elementary commercial experiences, and co-operative pupil activities. Such try-out experiences are for the purpose of teaching efficiency in everyday tasks, broadening the social and occupational outlook of the children, and discovering to them and the teachers their interests and abilities.

'Tests of general intelligence should be used with the greatest care. No important decision should be made on the basis of a group test alone; special classifications and assignment of special curriculums should be made only after an individual examination by a carefully trained and experienced psychologist. Whenever time and facilities permit, occupational tests should also be used.

'Cumulative records should be kept for individuals. These should include academic records, social conditions, physical and mental records, and the results of counselling.

'School systems should undertake follow-up work and employment supervision, to extend throughout the time of minority of the child and to be exercised in co-operation with the above-mentioned agencies'.

The Director-General of the United States Department of Labour recently wrote:

'There is no uniform and complete system of vocational guidance under federal direction in the United States. The movement known as 'vocational guidance' has developed

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locally and sporadically throughout the country. However, through the Junior Division of the United States Employment Service certain centralised and system work is being done which encourages its development and tends to standardise methods.

'The Junior Division in question conducts experiments in the field of vocational guidance and in the placing of children and young persons, and aims at formulating general policy and collecting information in order to serve in a national clearing house for information. Grants are made for work undertaken locally'.

So, too, the Pittsburgh public schools have an extensive Vocational Guidance and Placement Department which co-operates with the municipal Junior Placement Office. Another typical organisation of the sort is 'Vocational Guidance for Juniors Incorporated', New York.

The Children's Bureau established at Washington in 1912 makes a special study of methods including tests for the guidance and placing of boys and girls and has undertaken a survey of existing methods in some 15 typical cities.