Warnock (1978)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Membership, Contents, Introduction
Chapter 1 General approach
Chapter 2 Historical background
Chapter 3 Scope of special education
Chapter 4 Discovery, assessment and recording
Chapter 5 Children under five
Chapter 6 Schoolchildren with special needs: introduction
Chapter 7 Special education in ordinary schools
Chapter 8 Special education in special schools
Chapter 9 Parents as partners
Chapter 10 Transition from school to adult life
Chapter 11 Some curricular considerations
Chapter 12 Teacher education and training
Chapter 13 Advice and support in special education
Chapter 14 Other education service staff
Chapter 15 Health service and social services
Chapter 16 Relations between professionals, confidentiality and coordination of services
Chapter 17 Voluntary organisations
Chapter 18 Research and development
Chapter 19 Priorities and resources
Summary of recommendations

Appendices

Appendix 1 List of contributors
Appendix 2 Categories of handicapped pupils
Appendix 3 Possible grid as basis for statistical returns
Appendix 4 Organisation of health service
Appendix 5 Research project on services for parents of under 5s
Appendix 6 Research project on pre-school education
Appendix 7 Research project on employment experiences of handicapped school leavers
Appendix 8 Survey of teachers' views on special education

Index

Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the education of handicapped children and young people

London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office 1978
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.

ISBN 0 10 172120 X

Chapter 7 Special education in ordinary schools
[pages 99 - 120]

INTRODUCTION

7.1 In this chapter we move to the central contemporary issue in special education which has been earnestly debated far beyond the frontiers of the education service. The principle of educating handicapped and non-handicapped children together, which is described as 'integration' in this country and 'mainstreaming' in the United States of America, and is recognised as part of a much wider movement of 'normalisation' in Scandinavia and Canada, is the particular expression of a widely held and still growing conviction that, so far as is humanly possible, handicapped people should share the opportunities for self-fulfilment enjoyed by other people. This recognition of the right of the handicapped to uninhibited participation in the activities of everyday life, in all their varied forms, has been aptly described by the Snowdon Working Party. (1) 'Integration for the disabled means a thousand things. It means the absence of segregation. It means social acceptance. It means being able to be treated like everybody else. It means the right to work, to go to cinemas, to enjoy outdoor sport, to have a family life and a social life and a love life, to contribute materially to the community, to have the usual choices of association, movement and activity, to go on holiday to the usual places, to be educated up to university level with one's unhandicapped peers, to travel without fuss on public transport ...' Although written with the physically disabled principally in mind, this passage catches the spirit of changing attitudes to handicap in all its manifestations.

7.2 The principle is not new to education. It has been long-standing government policy, confirmed in numerous official documents, that no child should be sent to a special school who can be satisfactorily educated in an ordinary one. There has in fact been a steady increase over time in the number of children ascertained as handicapped who have been placed in designated special classes and units in ordinary schools. It rose from 11,027 in 1973 to 21,245 in 1977, that is from 6.8 per cent to 12.0 per cent of all children ascertained as requiring separate special provision. (2) The children placed in these classes and units have been mainly those with moderate rather than severe disabilities, but all categories of handicap are represented. They still form quite a small proportion of all handicapped children for whom special education is provided, but the trend is likely to continue. Although the existence of such classes and units does not necessarily entail integration in any complete sense, nevertheless it is a proof that segregation is diminishing. Moreover, although figures are not available, placements of children with disabilities in ordinary classes, of which we give examples in paragraph 7.12 (i), are becoming more frequent.

7.3 The wider concept of special education proposed in this report, embracing as it does all those children in ordinary schools who, though not at present accounted handicapped, need additional support in a variety of forms, is directly in line with the principle that handicapped and non-handicapped children should be educated in a common setting so far as possible. The great majority of these children will continue to attend ordinary schools in the future. Moreover, we have made very clear our determined opposition to the notion of treating handicapped and non-handicapped children as forming two distinctive groups, for whom separate educational provision has to be made. It follows that we wholeheartedly support the principle of the development of common provision for all children.

7.4 Section 10 of the Education Act 1976 is now on the statute book. This has the effect that, subject to certain qualifications and from a date to be appointed by the Secretary of State, handicapped pupils in England and Wales are to be educated in ordinary schools in preference to special schools. We regard this as a challenge to the educational system as a whole which it is our duty to take seriously, with all its implications. We have accordingly judged it more fruitful to concentrate on the practical requirements for the future than to continue to debate the advantages and disadvantages of integration. Moreover, the well-worn arguments for and against integration, being framed in terms of the 2 per cent of children at present ascertained as requiring special education, do not fit our wider concept of special education.

7.5 Our consideration of arrangements for meeting special educational needs in ordinary schools is set in the much broader context of special educational provision for up to one in five children who may require it at some point during their school career. It also has particular regard to the needs of children with moderate learning difficulties or emotional or behavioural disorders who form the majority of children at present receiving separate special educational provision. We begin this chapter by discussing the different forms of integration. We then proceed to consider in detail those types of special educational provision identified in the last chapter which may be made in ordinary schools, and the conditions for their success. Finally, we examine the implications of Section 10 of the Education Act 1976.

I THE DIFFERENT FORMS OF INTEGRATION

7.6 We have distinguished three main forms of integration. They are not discrete, but overlapping, and although each has a validity of its own they represent progressive stages of association. They provide a serviceable framework for discussion both of the nature of integration and of the means of planning its effective provision.

7.7 The first form of integration relates to the physical LOCATION of special educational provision. Locational integration exists where special units or classes are set up in ordinary schools. It also exists where a special school and an ordinary school share the same site. It may be the most tenuous form of association, especially if contact with other children is not carefully organised. Even so it can bring worthwhile gains. In the case of children attending special units or classes, their parents may be encouraged by the mere fact that their children attend an ordinary school; it is good that a child with a disability or significant difficulty should be able to attend the same school as his brothers or sisters of like age; moreover there is opportunity for children in the ordinary classes to be aware of children with special needs, and for children with disabilities to observe the behaviour of their contemporaries. These outcomes can be promoted by careful planning of the disposition of ordinary and special accommodation. In Sweden, where it is often claimed that the integration of even severely handicapped children has been widely achieved, the form which it takes is, in many cases, mainly locational, as those of us who visited that country observed. Some of the special classes are effectively separated from the rest of the school in all respects; those which are imaginatively planned and organised, however, offer handicapped and non-handicapped children the opportunity of familiarising themselves with the other, and they represent a first stage towards full integration. These benefits can also accrue when a special school is on the same site as an ordinary school.

7.8 The second form of integration which we have identified relates to its SOCIAL aspect, where children attending a special class or unit eat, play and consort with other children, and possibly share organised out of classroom activities with them. Social interchange of this kind between children with special needs and others in the same school, or on the same campus, will have a different significance at different ages. Young children are generally able to accept individual differences more readily and more naturally than older children, whose growing self-consciousness and conformity to group behaviour can often inhibit the development of easy relationships with others outside their chosen circle. It is therefore important that social interchange should begin at as early an age as possible, and so be received as the natural order of communal life and lay the foundation of more significant relationships later on. Even for children with profound learning difficulties, the friendship and society of other children can effectively stimulate personal development.

7.9 The third and fullest form of integration is FUNCTIONAL integration. This is achieved where the locational and social association of children with special needs with their fellows leads to joint participation in educational programmes. It is the closest form of association, where children with special needs join, part-time or full-time, the regular classes of the school, and make a full contribution to the activity of the school. Functional integration makes the greatest demands upon an ordinary school, since it requires the most careful planning of class and individual teaching programmes to ensure that all the children benefit, whether or not they have special educational needs. We deal extensively with these issues later in this chapter and in our discussion of the curriculum in Chapter 11.

7.10 The concept of these three characteristic forms of integration - locational, social and functional - sharpens discussion of its meaning. Each element of the triad has a separate validity, although the functional element is perhaps uppermost in most people's minds when they speak of integration. Together these elements provide a framework for the planning and organisation of new arrangements for the education of children with special educational needs jointly with other children, and for later judgement of how effectively it has been achieved. They also bring home very forcibly the truth that if integration is to bring all the desired benefits there must be a sufficient proportion of the activities of a school, physical, social and educational, in which a child with a disability or significant difficulty can participate on equal terms with other children, and by means of which he can come to enjoy the realisation of personal achievement and gain acceptance as a full member of the school community by pupils and staff.

7.11 Such an outcome will not occur spontaneously. Nor will it be achieved by legislation alone. It has to be contrived and patiently nurtured. It means greater discrimination in favour of those children with special needs, in proportion to the severity of their disabilities. The planning, initiation and sustaining of integrated education calls for considerable knowledge, skill and sympathetic dedication by everyone concerned - parents, teachers, administrators and other professionals of different kinds. This chapter is about the QUALITY of special education in ordinary schools, for that will substantially determine attitudes to integration in future years.

II TYPES OF SPECIAL EDUCATIONAL PROVISION IN ORDINARY SCHOOLS

7.12 The three forms of integration identified in the last section can be illustrated by examples of different types of special educational provision. In the last chapter we identified the main types of such provision which, in our view, will be needed in the future. Here we consider in somewhat greater detail those which are located in the ordinary school, with particular attention to the scope they offer for interaction between those children with special educational needs and other children, and with examples of existing practice.

(i) Full-time education in an ordinary class with any necessary help and support

Full-time education in an ordinary class should be the aim for many children with special educational needs. It should be possible to achieve this aim in the case of the majority of children with mild learning difficulties, many of whom are at present the concern of remedial services, provided that adequate support is available from teachers with additional training or expertise in special education and from members of the special education advisory and support service proposed in Chapter 13. Some children with mild learning difficulties, however, will need more specialised provision of the type described in (ii) and (iii) below, as will most of those with moderate learning difficulties.

For many children with other handicapping conditions full participation in the curriculum of an ordinary class can be made possible by various measures like the provision of ramps and other aids to movement, space for a wheel-chair, special equipment such as a hearing aid, the presence of non-teaching aides, and individual teaching within the ordinary class, supported where necessary by special materials, such as books with large print. Already many children with handicapping conditions, particularly those with physical disabilities, have been successfully placed in ordinary classes in this way.

A small number of children with more severe disabilities, in very favourable conditions, have also been successfully placed in ordinary classes. There are two schemes in England designed to integrate blind children in ordinary classes, both based on residential special schools - Tapton Mount in Sheffield and St Vincent's in Liverpool. (3) The Tapton Mount scheme, which was launched in 1969, included fifteen pupils up to 1977-78: the children attend a comprehensive school in the city and return in the evening to a hostel attached to Tapton Mount School for the blind. Two teachers from Tapton Mount, designated 'resource teachers', run a small resource centre on the comprehensive school campus where they produce maps, diagrams and braille texts and arrange for volunteer readers. In the St Vincent's scheme, which began in 1961 and in which 13 pupils have so far taken part, the pupils attend two Roman Catholic grammar schools in Liverpool and return to St Vincent's for a specified period of homework every evening. A counsellor, based at St Vincent's, supervises and assists the pupils with their homework but has little contact with the local grammar schools. The propinquity of the participating schools and the rigorous procedures for selecting pupils favour the success of both schemes. To be selected a pupil must display high academic potential, emotional and social maturity, adequate mobility and expertise in braille and typing.

There is also a small number of schemes for the integration of deaf children in ordinary classes. In the London borough of Haringey some deaf children are being integrated into ordinary classes in their local primary and secondary schools. Each child in the scheme receives a daily visit of up to 45 minutes from a teacher of the deaf, and visits of up to five half days a week from a supporting teacher who has undertaken a brief induction course in helping deaf children. The amount of additional help that each child needs varies according to his age, hearing loss, personality, the size of the school class and the way the class is organised. Schemes for the integration of individual deaf children are also operating in Norfolk and Worcestershire, where over 80 per cent of the children who wear hearing aids attend local ordinary schools. The success of such schemes depends on the availability of special equipment and the way in which local services are organised, in particular the extent to which the teacher of the deaf is a member of a coordinated team on which he can draw for professional support.

We regard it as an important condition of the success of all schemes for integrating children with disabilities or significant difficulties into ordinary schools that there should not be so many of these children in any one school as will change the nature of the school, or even encourage the formation of a separate sub-group. We make a recommendation to this effect in relation to special classes and units in paragraph 7.38. Any special arrangements for the integration of a child with a disability into an ordinary class must be compatible with the interests of other children in the class, and specialist teachers must be available to review the arrangements, to support the ordinary teacher in his work and to tutor the child, where necessary.

(ii) Education in an ordinary class with periods of withdrawal to a special class or unit or other supporting base

Some children, though enabled by measures of the kind described in (i) to profit from substantial attendance at an ordinary class, need at least some additional provision which the ordinary class cannot offer. They are likely to include those who require a form of modified or supplemented curriculum, specialist teaching techniques in particular areas of learning, access to some types of special apparatus, materials or accommodation, or perhaps simply the occasional enjoyment of the intimate influence of a smaller teaching group. A variety of arrangements has been developed along these lines, including some for children with moderate learning difficulties. In one primary school to which a partially hearing unit is attached, for example, close cooperation over the years between the staffs of the school and the unit has resulted in a number of partially hearing children receiving substantial periods of education in ordinary classes. Careful preparation and continued support on the part of the unit staff, some additional training for teachers in the ordinary classes and the provision of a special resource in the form of a radio-microphone system have all helped to make this possible. In Chapter 3 we noted that special classes, other than designated special classes, have been set up in some 40 per cent of maintained schools in England and Wales. In 1976 they catered for 458,087 children (4.7 per cent of the school population) with learning difficulties, emotional or behavioural problems or a combination of these, of whom 82 per cent spent less than half of their time in the special classes. (4) In some schools resource rooms, suitably equipped and staffed, have been established as a supporting base for children with special educational needs, and we make a recommendation about these in paragraph 7.32. Whatever the form of separate provision, it should be interwoven with the programmes of the ordinary class that the child attends, and it should be directed, wherever possible, to enabling the child eventually to attend the ordinary class full-time.

(iii) Education in a special class or unit with periods of attendance at an ordinary class and full involvement in the general community life and extra-curricular activities of the ordinary school

This arrangement implies that a pupil's special needs are such that the major part of his education must take place outside the ordinary classes of the school. In most cases he will therefore be on the roll of the special class or unit, in contrast to the arrangement in (ii) where the ordinary class will be the home base. Nevertheless we take the view that the slightest participation in ordinary class activities can be strikingly beneficial to children with special needs, and that their total exclusion should therefore not be accepted before every possibility has been thoroughly considered. Of necessity the range of educational opportunities available in a special class or unit may be limited. It is therefore important that children who are able to do so should take part in a wider range of activities, particularly at the secondary school stage. We recognise that the provision of these wider opportunities may present practical difficulties, which will vary according to the nature and extent of the children's disabilities and their age; the problems will be different in secondary schools, where frequent class changes are necessary, from those in primary schools. We believe that these difficulties can, and should, be overcome and we see scope for making arrangements of this kind for children with a wide range of difficulties and disorders, including emotional and behavioural disorders. Indeed, such an arrangement has been successfully operated for pupils with emotional and behavioural difficulties as well as those with moderate learning difficulties at the Bicester and Cooper Schools at Bicester, and we give further details in paragraph 7.30. Full involvement in the communal life and extra-curricular activities of a school is clearly an important feature of the education of all the pupils, particularly those with special needs: but it acquires additional significance where such involvement is the major or only means whereby a severely handicapped pupil is able to establish his place as an active member of the school. Those responsible for the planning of out of class activities should therefore constantly have in mind the interests of pupils in special classes or units and contrive the means for their full involvement, wherever possible.

(iv) Full-time education in a special class or unit with social contact with the main school

Where a child's special needs are such that he is quite unable to join an ordinary class for any part of his education he may, for the same reasons, be prevented from full involvement in out of class activities. If such children are to live in the community, and if their fellows are to understand their problems, some special interaction is essential. Particularly if the attendance of children with very severe disabilities at the ordinary school is to have any justification they must be allowed opportunity for regular contact with other children and teachers in the school. This contact might be achieved through other children and teachers coming into the special class or unit or through the teachers and children in the special class or unit visiting the main school, if only for social interchange. Careful arrangements to this end will need to be made which take into account individual conditions and capabilities. The arrangements will require to be consciously planned no less than the pupil's formal education, and for this reason should be the responsibility of a particular member of the school staff. Every effort must be made to ensure that the special class or unit is an integral part of the school.

III THE CONDITIONS FOR THE EFFECTIVE PROVISION OF SPECIAL EDUCATION IN ORDINARY SCHOOLS

7.14 On the basis of the evidence received and our own observations of good practice in schools, of which some examples were given in the last section, we have identified a number of conditions for the effective provision of special education in ordinary schools. The character of a school, its size, premises, staffing and organisation all affect its capacity to make effective special educational provision. These conditions are discussed in detail in the following paragraphs.

7.15 If provision is to be effective, a framework is needed within which children may use AS OF RIGHT the general facilities available at school and also receive the special help that they require. There must be maximum opportunity for children in the ordinary school to share experience through both curricular and extra-curricular activities. It will not be enough for such activities to be encouraged: they have to be planned. Although such opportunity will inevitably be restricted in particular cases by a child's need for special teaching in a separate setting, or by other constraints imposed by his particular condition, this should be the guiding principle applicable to all the different forms of special educational provision in ordinary schools. It entails the creation of individual learning, including therapeutic, programmes, based upon a full and accurate assessment of individual need, and the relating of these programmes to. each other and to ordinary teaching programmes. It makes new and formidable demands upon the capabilities of teachers and calls for extra provision in the shape of accommodation, equipment, and on-the-spot supporting services. We cannot envisage any substantial move towards the integration of children with disabilities or significant difficulties unless these conditions, which we discuss in greater detail below, are satisfied.

The children

7.16 Special educational provision, in whatever shape, will be effective only if informed by an accurate assessment of all the factors - physical, mental and emotional - which condition a child's performance. Teachers must have full information about any special educational needs of the children for whose education they become responsible. The assessment procedures which we proposed in Chapter 4 should enable this condition to be met. For most of those children, up to one in five of the school population, who are likely at one time or another to experience special educational difficulties, assessment at one of our school-based stages should be sufficient; a child with more severe difficulties who requires regular specialist support over and above what the school itself can offer will have been assessed by a multi-professional team. The team will have completed a profile of his needs which, if he is subsequently recorded by the local education authority as requiring special education, will form the basis of the authority's duty to provide it.

7.17 The attitudes of other children in the school also affect the success of arrangements for those with disabilities or significant difficulties. It is important that, where children with severe or complex disabilities are accepted, the other pupils should be helped to understand that, while they have certain special needs, these children are in other respects no different from them.

The parents

7.18 Throughout this report we have consistently stressed the need for the closest possible involvement of parents in the assessment of the child's educational needs and in the provision made. It follows that we regard such involvement as an important feature of any form of special educational provision in ordinary schools, no less than in special schools. Moreover, the parents of children who are on the roll of a special class or unit should be treated in exactly the same way as parents of other children in the school with regard, for example, to invitations to school functions and membership of governing bodies. We recognise that attending school functions regularly may involve parents in rural areas in considerable expense and we hope that, wherever possible, local education authorities will offer assistance by arranging transport or contributing to the costs.

7.19 Since problems in integrating individual children with disabilities or significant difficulties in ordinary schools may sometimes stem from their incomplete acceptance by the family, parents must be assisted to understand their child's difficulties. They must also be helped to adopt attitudes to him most conducive to his feeling that he is accepted and has the same status in the family as any brothers or sisters. This sense of acceptance by the family is likely to be a prerequisite of the successful integration of an individual child in an ordinary school. We discuss the various forms of advice and support required by parents of children with special needs in Chapter 9.

7.20 The integration of children in ordinary schools, particularly those with severe or complex disabilities or disorders, may be prejudiced if the parents of other pupils are not conversant with the arrangements. It is important that they should be clearly informed of the nature of the special provision being made and should have the opportunity to discuss this with the staff.

The staff

7.21 Without whole-hearted commitment by teachers to the reception of children with disabilities, particularly severe or complex ones, the most careful planning is unlikely to be successful. An understanding by teachers of what will be involved is essential, and in Chapter 12 we suggest how this might be developed in the course of training. Understanding does not however go the whole way: it must be combined with helpful and constructive attitudes which encourage but do not patronise. A recent survey of special classes and units for physically handicapped children found that although many of the handicapped children were benefiting academically and socially from attendance at ordinary classes, much greater interaction with non-handicapped children would have resulted had integration been a major objective of all the staff, and had more thought been given, from the planning stage onwards, to the means of its achievement. (5) Since the aim of integration is to enrich the education of both handicapped and non-handicapped children this loss of opportunity represents a double deprivation. We recommend that before a child with a disability or severe difficulty enters an ordinary school the teaching staff should discuss among themselves and agree a plan for securing the maximum educational and social interaction between him and others in the school, and should strive collectively thereafter to implement the plan.

7.22 The importance of favourable staff-pupil ratios if individual pupils with disabilities are to be successfully assimilated into ordinary classes was confirmed by the responses from head teachers and teachers in ordinary schools to a survey which was conducted on our behalf by the Department of Education and Science of the views of teachers in England, Scotland and Wales about provision for children with special educational needs. (6) Staffing ratios which facilitate smaller classes in general, and smaller teaching groups in particular, were considered to be the most important factor contributing to successful integration.

7.23 We strongly endorse the need for adequate staff and resources to be made available to ordinary schools to meet the needs of children assessed as requiring special educational help. These staff must have additional training or substantial experience in special education, and the nature of the training required is considered in Chapter 12. Moreover, as the Circular on staffing in special schools and special classes issued jointly by the Department of Education and Science and the Welsh Office in 1973 and the Consultative Document issued by the Scottish Education Department in the same year rightly emphasised, (7) adequate numbers of competent ancillary workers are also needed in special classes. This, we would add, is particularly necessary where a special class or unit or ordinary class contains children with severe disabilities.

7.24 If there is to be a FUNCTIONAL UNITY within an ordinary school, there must be close relations between teachers responsible for children with special educational needs and other members of staff. Where a special class or unit is attached to a school, teachers in the class or unit should have the opportunity to do some teaching in other parts of the school; conversely teachers in the ordinary classes should have the opportunity to share in some of the teaching in the special class or unit. Such interchange will promote the unity of the school, help teachers to understand each other's interests and concerns, and encourage children in the special class or unit to regard themselves as equal members of the school. We recognise however that this may present difficulties in secondary schools in Scotland under present regulations if the teacher concerned does not hold a qualification for secondary teaching.

The governing body

7.25 The endeavours of local education authorities and teachers to promote and sustain the spirit and practice of a unified system of ordinary and special education will be strongly assisted by an informed and sympathetic managing or governing body of the ordinary school. It is therefore important that the managing or governing body should appreciate the fact that a significant proportion of the pupils in a school is likely to require special educational help at any time, and the implications of the acceptance of children with severe difficulties. The members should be consulted before arrangements are made to establish a special class or unit in the school. Thereafter they should be ready to give attention to this aspect of the school's activity and should be helped to do so. To this end we recommend that where a special class or unit established by a local education authority is attached to an ordinary school, a member of the managing or governing body should be specifically concerned with that class or unit. We do not suggest that this need entail a new appointment. We have in mind, rather, that an individual member, who may or may not already have related experience, should be especially charged with informing himself of this aspect of school activities and with generally equipping himself to promote discussion of matters relating to special education. He should be able to consult informally both the head teacher of the school and the local education authority's advisory and support service on any matters on which he requires information or which are causing him concern.

Premises

7.26 The nature of the school premises is a major determinant of the effectiveness of special educational provision in ordinary schools. Any impediments to easy movement around the school will need to be overcome through adaptations to premises if children with severe physical disabilities are to be enabled to join ordinary classes and share in school activities. Other more general considerations, such as the degree of open planning, may affect the suitability of a school for children with emotional disorders or with impaired hearing. We return to this in the following section.

Organisation, methods and curriculum

7.27 The extent to which an ordinary school is able to meet the special needs of pupils will be influenced by its organisation and by its ability to adapt to new demands. The demands may be relatively simple or more complex and varied according to circumstance. The principal factors in each case will be on the one hand the nature of the special needs, and, on the other, the flexibility of organisation and planning by means of which they are to be met. In Chapter 11 we consider the general principles of the planning of the curriculum for children with special educational needs.

7.28 In general terms, the head teacher will exercise oversight of special educational arrangements in his school in the manner laid down by the articles of government and will be responsible to the governors for the implementation of agreed policy. He should work closely with our proposed special education advisory and support service, and should collaborate with the head teacher of any special school in the vicinity to foster interchange between the schools, including the planning of joint activities for all pupils and the sharing of resources wherever possible. We recommend that the head teacher should normally delegate day to day responsibility for making arrangements for children with special needs to a designated specialist teacher or head of department. Such a teacher should be free to plan provision, including the curriculum, in consultation with the head teacher and members of the proposed advisory and support service.

7.29 Where special classes or units are set up, interaction between the pupils in them and other pupils can be further promoted through the skilled planning of extra-curricular activities. If the integration of children with severe disabilities who are unable to attend lessons in ordinary classes is to be at all real, there must be some activities in which they can mix and participate on equal terms with other children in the school. Extra-curricular activities such as visits, social functions and clubs provide such opportunity. At the same time some activities, particularly sporting activities, may be more satisfying for children with special needs if carried out separately rather than organised jointly with their non-handicapped fellows. Opportunities should be provided for children with physical disabilities and those who, for example, cannot easily coordinate their movements, to share physical activities with others who have similar difficulties. Arrangements of this kind should be an integral feature of local plans for special educational provision.

School-based resource centres and non-designated special classes

7.30 If ordinary schools are to be enabled to take an increasing share in the education of children with special needs in the ways described in the last section, including effective interchange with special schools, they will require support. In particular there will be need for the increasing development in ordinary schools of special facilities, and of teaching in a variety of ways, to enable as many children as possible who require special educational provision to receive it in ordinary classes. We have already referred in paragraph 7.12 (ii) to the special classes which have been established informally for this purpose in some 40 per cent of maintained schools in England and Wales. Other arrangements include the establishment of resource rooms, specially equipped according to the children's needs and staffed by a teacher or teachers with special qualifications, and progress units. Those of us who visited the Bicester and Cooper Schools at Bicester were impressed by the progress units in those schools, which provide specialist help and support for pupils with learning difficulties as well as a more informal and intimate atmosphere beneficial to pupils with emotional or behavioural difficulties. In each school the pupils with learning difficulties belong both to an ordinary form group and to the unit. The resources of the latter are readily accessible to other pupils in the school, some of whom have themselves asked to attend the unit. (8)

7.31 The development of resource centres in ordinary schools has been taken further in a number of other countries, including Denmark and the USA. In Denmark they are used as a way of providing additional help both for children with learning difficulties and for those with emotional or behavioural problems. The centres may take one of three forms: the reading 'clinic', found in most schools, consisting of a small room equipped with the technical resources needed for the teaching of reading and writing; the observation 'clinic' for children with emotional or behavioural problems; and the resource room equipped for children with special learning difficulties. Each of these forms of resource centre offers special facilities and specialist teaching for children for varying periods of time according to their needs. The children continue, however, to be regarded as belonging to the ordinary class. In some schools in the USA the staff in resource centres provide special programmes for children for part of each day and support individual children in ordinary classes for the remainder.

7.32 We see a resource centre as a room, or suite of rooms in a large school, where special materials and equipment are kept and to which groups of children may be withdrawn for special help. In some instances it may also be the class base for children from which they join ordinary classes for a considerable part of the normal school day. We also see it as a base in which visiting specialist teachers may work with children with special needs and where the school's special education teachers can prepare their work when they teach children elsewhere. Such a base would be the principal resource for helping children whose needs have been assessed at one of our school-based stages. Whilst the establishment of such a base in every school, regardless of its size or the incidence of pupils needing special education, would not be justified, there is likely to be a clear need in most large secondary schools. Accordingly we recommend that where one does not already exist, some form of resource centre or other supporting base should be established in large schools to promote the effectiveness of special educational provision.

7.33 We deal below with special classes and units which are formally designated by the local education authority. It will be important that every resource centre, special class or base which is organised internally by the head teacher should have as much material support related to its needs as would be given to one formally designated by the local education authority. At present many remedial departments fare badly in terms of premises, equipment and staffing. Their resources and staffing will in many cases need to be improved if they are to function effectively as resource centres in future. In order to avoid the possibility of disparity of provision we think that the proposed special education advisory and support service should be responsible for ensuring that information reaches the authority about the staffing and the pupils who have been assessed as needing this form of special support. The authority should then arrange for the necessary staff and other resources to be made available to the school and should ensure that they are used for that purpose.

Designated special classes and units

7.34 Special classes and units designated as such by a local education authority and providing wholly or mainly for the ascertained handicapped are of two main types. They may be attached to an ordinary school and regarded by the children as their home base within the school, or they may be unconnected with a school. Some of those unconnected with a school are attached to a child guidance clinic or other centre. Others are unattached to any establishment. These function under a teacher who is on the staff of a local special school or under a teacher who is responsible to the local education authority adviser or assistant education officer for special education. Even when attached to an ordinary school, a class or unit may in practice be physically or organisationally separate from it. The terms 'special class' and 'special unit' are often used interchangeably, but 'special unit' sometimes has the connotation of a special class (or group of special classes) which caters for children with one particular disability and which, whether or not formally attached to an ordinary school, functions as a distinct entity. It is, to all intents and purposes, a separate special school.

7.35 We have indicated our view (in paragraph 7.7) that the location of special educational provision can materially assist the achievement of worthwhile interchange between children with and without disabilities. For example, it at least affords opportunity for them to become acquainted and at best opens up the possibility of friendship and understanding, as well as effective functional integration. In the interests of promoting such interchange we recommend that special classes and units should wherever possible be attached to and function as part of ordinary schools rather than be organised separately or attached to another kind of establishment such as a child guidance centre.

7.36 Unless protected by careful arrangements children in special classes and units may experience a number of disadvantages, particularly where only one class or unit is attached to an ordinary school. In particular, the age range and variety of disabilities of pupils may be undesirably wide, with consequent restriction of their opportunities for progression in their education; and, secondly, the pupils may be exposed to too frequent changes or absences of staff. We recognise the need for discretion in the organisation of special classes and units, particularly in small towns and rural areas where numbers are small. We consider this further in paragraph 7.39. In relation to changes and absences of staff we recommend that local education authorities should ensure that a school with a special class or unit is allotted an extra specialist teacher to its staffing complement. Where possible the number of teachers in the special classes (including the class or classes within a unit) attached to a school should always exceed the number of such classes. Where this is not possible, for example in small schools and rural areas, other arrangements for reinforcing the staffing of the special classes should be made. An arrangement on the lines recommended would not only safeguard the continuity of special education but also facilitate the release of teachers in special classes or units to attend courses of in-service training or to participate in other activities designed to extend their knowledge and improve their qualifications.

7.37 The efficient deployment of specialist teaching and of other professional expertise available to a local education authority and the need to maximise the use of that sophisticated equipment which the education of many children with severe disabilities requires is likely to suggest the concentration of certain special classes or units in selected schools. For example, blind or deaf children may need extensive teaching and material support over and above the facilities of an ordinary school which it might be unrealistic to expect more than a few schools to provide. The availability of specialist medical, therapeutic and other supporting services may for the same reason point to a similar pattern of selective location of provision. Moreover, logistics apart, it may be desirable to ensure that a severely handicapped child has the companionship of a sufficient number of those with similar difficulties if he is not to feel an overwhelming sense of isolation in an ordinary school. The principle of selected concentration of special educational provision is followed in Denmark, where special classes are grouped at a number of ordinary schools to form a special education centre.

7.38 We see both the utility and the desirability of a measure of concentration of special educational provision in particular schools. However, effective integration implies as we have said a functional unity within the ordinary school, and the difficulty of achieving this will increase in proportion to the number of pupils with special needs and the range and severity of the needs those pupils have. We therefore recommend that children in special classes or units, whether attending full or part-time, should not form such a high proportion of the school roll or present such a range of needs as would substantially change the nature of the school. It should be noted that in some deprived inner-city and remote rural areas many schools already contain a very high proportion of children with mild or moderate learning difficulties or emotional or behavioural disorders. Such schools need considerably better than average facilities for special educational provision for these children and the assimilation of more children with disabilities and significant difficulties would need to be undertaken with great caution.

7.39 In small towns and rural areas there are unlikely to be sufficient children with the same basic disability to justify the provision of a separate class for that disability, particularly if it is a disability of generally low incidence. The difficulty is accentuated in Wales and certain areas of Scotland by the coexistence of two languages and the need for even finer grouping according to the child's first language. As a result 'multi-handicap' classes or units have been established in some areas which cater for a mixture of disabilities. This arrangement is acceptable if adequate resources are applied and the character of the school is not distorted. It will entail the regular attendance of visiting teachers and other specialists commensurate with the number of pupils and the range and severity of their educational needs, and careful and systematic monitoring of each child's progress. Where a wider range of milder disability is catered for a child's progress may be such that he is able to join an ordinary class, at first part-time but progressively moving towards full-time attendance. We hope that this kind of progression will become general practice in the future.

Supporting services

7.40. We hope that our recommendation in paragraph 7.32 that some form of resource centre or other supporting base should be available in ordinary schools to provide special facilities and teaching for children with special educational needs, as well as our proposals for teacher training, will mean that in future there will be at least one member of staff in most large schools with additional training and expertise in special education. All schools, however, whether or not they have such a teacher on their staff, will need access to sources of specialist educational advice and support if they are effectively to assess and provide for the needs of up to one in five children who may require special educational help. This is the basis of our recommendation in Chapter 13 that there should be a special education advisory and support service, and of our recommendations in Chapter 8 touching the future functions of special schools.

7.41 Ready access to other supporting services, particularly the school psychological, health and social services, is also needed if ordinary schools are to provide effectively for children who require special help. Moreover, careers officers and their specialist colleagues should be closely involved in the assessment of the special needs which many young people in schools may have and in offering advice and guidance to them on opportunities in further or higher education and employment. A recent survey of special units for physically handicapped children in ordinary schools found that it appeared to be easier for teachers in special schools than for teachers in special units, particularly those for junior pupils, to obtain advice from psychologists and other members of the education service. (9) The survey mentioned in paragraph 7.22 also revealed that teachers in special classes and units had less regular contact than those in special schools with speech therapists and physiotherapists. (10) It is axiomatic that the quality and regularity of specialist support for both children and teachers in special classes and units must be the same as that provided in good special schools.

7.42 At present a child in a special school who requires regular medical, nursing and other professional support may have the advantage over a child with similar needs placed in an ordinary school that he is able to receive treatment at the school, thus reducing the disruption to his education, and enabling the teachers to be associated with the treatment. Ideally we should like to see physiotherapy, speech therapy and treatment for children in ordinary schools who require such support provided in the school rather than at a clinic or other centre; as a corollary, local education authorities would need to provide the necessary facilities and area health authorities the necessary professional support. In practice, however, we recognise that this must be a long-term aim, to be achieved when resources permit. In the meantime a child's need for regular treatment and the degree of interruption that this would cause to his education if he were placed in an ordinary school and had to travel to a clinic or other centre must be taken into account, along with other relevant factors, in decisions about his placement.

7.43 We recognise that even in the long term, with improved services, it will not be possible to provide therapy or treatment in every school. For this reason alone it will in some cases be necessary to concentrate certain special classes and the related provision of therapy and treatment at particular schools. The local education authority will need to discuss these questions with the health authority before drawing up its arrangements for special educational provision.

IV INTEGRATION AND THE LAW

7.44 In November 1976 Parliament enacted an amendment to Section 33(2) of the Education Act 1944, operative from a day to be appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science, which requires that the arrangements made by local education authorities for special educational treatment in England and Wales shall provide for the education of handicapped pupils in county and voluntary (ie 'ordinary') schools, in preference to special schools, unless this would be impracticable, incompatible with the efficiency of the school or would involve unreasonable public expenditure. In this section we consider these qualifying conditions in the light of our more general discussion in the last section of the conditions for the effective provision of special education in ordinary schools.

7.45 The amendment embodied in Section 10 of the Education Act 1976 should be read against Section 8(2)(c) of the Education Act 1944 which requires that, in fulfilling their duty to secure that there are sufficient schools available, local education authorities should have regard to the need for securing that provision is made for pupils who suffer from any disability of mind or body by providing, either in special schools or otherwise, special educational treatment. Being set within the present statutory framework of ascertainment, categorisation and treatment, Section 10 will need to be amended in line with the new concept of special educational provision which we proposed in Chapter 3. We deal with it here in the context of our broader view of special educational provision.

7.46 The principle embodied in Section 10 is not new or revolutionary, but rather it accords with a consensus of public feeling that handicapped people should, so far as possible, be enabled to take their place in the general community. Our present purpose is to consider what the new legislation means for special education in practice and how it is likely to affect the future development of special educational provision in ordinary schools.

7.47 Although Section 10 is ostensibly about the location of special educational provision, it goes very much wider than that. The attachment of important qualifications to the main requirement evidences Parliament's concern with the QUALITY of special education as well as its LOCATION. We would emphasise that, if children with special needs are to benefit from the normal facilities of the ordinary school, and if they are to participate, as of right, in its educational and social activities, there has to be a functional unity within the school. The qualifications also reflect Parliament's recognition that there are inevitable constraints on integration, in some cases so severe as to make the aim altogether inappropriate. For some children very careful and sometimes difficult decisions will have to be taken as to where the balance of advantage lies between education in an ordinary school and in a special school.

7.48 The implementation of Section 10 will therefore call for the very careful and comprehensive planning by local education authorities of their general arrangements for the area. It will be necessary to decide what special help ordinary schools can provide with reasonable support, in which schools special arrangements will be made, and the variety and severity of needs that they will meet. Moreover, the coordination of and continuity between provision at the primary, middle and secondary stages will be essential. Local education authorities will have to consult area health authorities, social services departments and other providing services, as well as other local education authorities, where it would be sensible to make shared provision. Teachers and others working in particular schools will have to plan to ensure that the general principles are put into effect. The need for all teachers to have an insight into special educational needs, and for some to have an additional qualification in special education, the distribution of resources, including specialist equipment, the arrangements for transport and residential accommodation, the future structure of administrative and professional support, the deployment of scarce specialist staff and resources in the health and social services, the developing relations between ordinary and special schools - these and other aspects of provision will need a coordinated approach if the danger of piecemeal development is to be avoided. We therefore recommend that each local education authority should have a comprehensive and long-term plan for special educational provision within which the arrangements for individual schools will take their place. Those authorities which have already prepared plans for the future provision of special education will need to revise them in the light of Section 10 and the more extensive ambit of special education that we have identified; the others should draw up comprehensive plans as soon as possible. The need for regional planning is considered further in the following chapter and in Chapter 16.

7.49 The three qualifying conditions set out in Section 10 (practicability, efficiency and cost) are open to many interpretations. We assume, however, that their paramount aim is to ensure a high quality of special educational provision. The following comments illustrate our general approach. The circumstances in which integrated provision in an ordinary school might be impracticable will vary depending on the abilities and disabilities of different children. Integrated provision in an ordinary school might be impracticable for a variety of reasons. It would be impracticable if the physical conditions were not suitable and could not be made so, for example because the site was small or the buildings so planned or designed as to be incapable of alteration or extension. Equally the test of practicability would rule out the use of unsuitable buildings before necessary adaptations or improvements had been undertaken. Integration would be impracticable if requisite nursing and therapeutic services could not be conveniently provided or if traffic conditions adversely affected travel to and from the school. The list can be extended, and the considerations will vary in relation not only to different kinds of disability but also to individual children. For example, adaptations to the premises of a school might make integration in that school practicable for children in wheelchairs but not for those with callipers. Moreover, integration in an ordinary school might be impracticable for children with impaired hearing if the school was adjacent to a main road. Each case will have to be considered individually in the light of the child's needs and the physical conditions of the school. The importance of this qualification, as we see it, is that integration is unlikely to be successful and could be retrogressive, if put into operation without full regard to the kinds of considerations we have indicated.

7.50 The second qualification requires that the provision of special education in an ordinary school should be compatible with the provision of efficient instruction in the school. 'Efficient instruction' must be taken to mean the same as 'good education'. This requirement is therefore absolutely indispensable. We would emphasise that it applies to THE SCHOOL AS A WHOLE and therefore to all the pupils in the school, whether they have special educational needs or not. It follows that the arrangements must not work to the disadvantage of any group of pupils in the school, for example in the allocation of resources or amenities, or in the range of academic or social opportunity. Further, we read 'efficient instruction' as encompassing the 'wholeness' of need which individual pupils may have, their need, for example, for the companionship of children of like age, condition and background, or in some cases for the intimate community that a small school is especially able to provide.

7.51 Educational efficiency can be considered in four different aspects. First, it depends in part upon the physical organisation of facilities. A school on more than one site could not be efficient if, as a result of the number of sites, some pupils were barred from full participation in school activities. The possibility of moving around the school without stress, not only between classes but for corporate social and recreational activities, is an essential element in the concept of efficiency. Thus special facilities, in the form of handrails, ramps or lifts, will be needed to enable severely handicapped children to make their way from one part of the school to another, and suitable washing and toilet arrangements will need to be adapted for their use in various places. Blind children must be able to circulate within and outside the school buildings without danger to themselves or to others, whilst deaf children must not be at risk through inability to hear instructions or warning sounds. Those children who require constant personal care or attention should be able to receive it wherever they may be at any time or place within the school; and should not be restricted to a particular location on that account. In the same category we would place the dovetailing of educational and supportive programmes: thus a physically handicapped child who needs physiotherapy should be able to obtain it without detriment to his education, and it should be coordinated with the teaching programme, for example in physical education. Where the efficiency of a child's education depends upon the provision of special accommodation, equipment or materials, such as audiological aids or books in braille, these must clearly be available wherever the curriculum requires it. Before any scheme of integration is introduced its implications in physical terms must be thoroughly studied and appropriate provision made.

7.52 Secondly, efficient education requires scrupulous planning of the curriculum so that the special needs of children are met so far as possible within or in association with ordinary teaching programmes. This is particularly important so far as children with moderate learning difficulties are concerned. Much planning may need to be done on an individual basis. We deal with this in Chapter 11.

7.53 Thirdly, to be compatible with efficient instruction, integration must be planned from the standpoint of children's emotional needs. Some children, for instance, find it difficult to flourish in a large school and need the reassurance of a more intimate community. Similarly, in the case of some forms of disability, particularly profound hearing impairment, there must be a sufficient number of children in a special class with the same condition if individuals are not to feel isolated. Children are not different from adults in needing opportunities to form special relationships with those who share their particular condition, interests and perspectives. Conversely the emotional needs of some children may be incompatible with those of others. Thus very careful arrangements will be needed, if children whose maladjustment takes the form of seriously disruptive behaviour are to be educated in ordinary schools. For many of these children separate provision in special schools may be essential, particularly where boarding education is required.

7.54 Fourthly, educational efficiency depends on the expertise of the teaching staff. Integration requires that all teachers have some knowledge of special educational needs and that those with a defined responsibility for teaching such children have additional training or substantial experience in special education. We return to this in Chapter 12.

7.55 The final qualification in Section 10 - the avoidance of unreasonable public expenditure - will obviously have different applications at different times according to the state of national prosperity and the ordering of priorities. If resources were unlimited it would theoretically be possible for all schools to be enabled to cater for all children in the catchment area, whatever their special needs might be. In practice resources have to be deployed with economy insofar as this is consistent with good standards. Moreover, public spending on education cannot be determined independently of other public sector needs. The provision of special facilities of a comparable standard to those in the best existing special schools will involve a very considerable amount of public expenditure and whether or not such expenditure is justifiable will be a matter of judgement by those responsible for the allocation and management of public resources. Moreover, the costs involved will have different implications depending on, for example, whether a particular area is sparsely or densely populated, rural or urban. At some stage it may be desirable to develop guidelines of reasonable cost in relation to different forms of special provision. However, it would be short-sighted to judge a particular proposal solely on an immediate cost-efficiency basis. Section 10 refers to local education authorities' arrangements as a whole, and this implies a general plan or scheme of future provision into which the separate proposals fit. We have urged that local education authorities should prepare such a plan. The cost of each proposal should therefore also be looked at in terms of its contribution to the general plan, since it might well facilitate the later introduction of other components of the plan, with compensating savings at the later stage.

7.56 One thing is clear. As a number of contributors to our evidence, including the associations of local authorities, pointed out, the integration in ordinary schools of children currently ascertained as handicapped, if achieved without loss of educational quality, is not a cheap alternative to provision in separate special schools, and there is no short cut. Indeed, leaving aside the capital costs of making buildings suitable for handicapped children, the dispersal over many schools of the specialist teaching and supportive services at present concentrated in few schools will be considerably more expensive.

7.57 Arrangements for special educational provision in ordinary schools, particularly for children with severe disabilities, will need careful monitoring. We welcome the initiative of the Department of Education and Science in commissioning a research project, now being conducted by the National Foundation for Educational Research, to monitor some recently developed schemes for the education of handicapped children in, or in association with, ordinary schools, and in Chapter 18 we suggest that the monitoring and evaluation of changes following the implementation of Section 10 should receive attention as an area of research which deserves priority. We hope that local education authorities, through the proposed special education advisory and support service, will monitor arrangements in their own areas.

7.58 In addition to establishing the circumstances in which special educational provision may be made in schools which are not maintained by local education authorities, Section 10 also provides that such schools shall be those which are currently accepted by the Secretary of State as being suitable for the purpose. Clearly a non-maintained school which had been approved by the Secretary of State as a special school under Section 9(5) of the Education Act 1944 would automatically be deemed to be suitable for the purposes of Section 33(2) of the 1944 Act as amended by Section 10 of the Education Act 1976. We deal with registered independent schools in Section IV of Chapter 8 and there make separate recommendations in relation to their acceptance for the purposes of Section 33(2) of the Education Act 1944, as amended.

, 7.59 Finally, Section 10 is to come into force on a day to be appointed by the Secretary of State. We have observed that Section 10 is the legislative expression of a principle which is widely supported, and that provision for handicapped children has been increasingly made in ordinary schools. We would expect this trend to continue irrespective of Section 10. The new provision therefore supports the natural growth of integration by a positive requirement that local education authorities are in future to plan their arrangements in line with the principle. The extent to which authorities have built up experience of integrated arrangements varies considerably. The 21,245 handicapped children who in 1977 were educated in special units or classes attached to ordinary schools represented 12 per cent of all children who had been ascertained as requiring separate special educational treatment (176,688) and, of the 21,245, 64 per cent were in present terminology ESN(M), 17 per cent were partially hearing and 11 per cent were maladjusted. Thus integration has so far taken place on a limited, though increasing, scale and substantially in relation to particular disabilities. We have pointed to the need for a coordinated approach and have urged that each local education authority should draw up a comprehensive plan setting out its arrangements for special educational provision. We recommend that before Section 10 comes into force the Secretary of State for Education and Science should issue comprehensive guidance to local education authorities on the framing of their future arrangements for special educational provision. We would expect the Secretary of State for Social Services to contribute to the guidance in respect of those aspects which concern the health and social services.

7.60 The guidance issued to local education authorities would need to be drawn up in accordance with the new concept of special education and the procedures for assessment and recording that we propose. We have pointed to the need for Section 10 to be amended in these terms; indeed, we envisage that it will be embodied in the legislative provisions which our proposals require and which we outlined in Chapters 3 and 4. Section 10 is to come into force on a day to be appointed by the Secretary of State, but by no means all authorities will be ready on that day to extend their special educational provision in ordinary schools. Its implementation must necessarily be a long-term development, and it should take place within the new framework of special education proposed in this report.

CONCLUSION

7.61 Our report envisages a considerable improvement in special educational provision in ordinary schools to meet the needs of a significant proportion of their pupils who are likely to require such provision, including those often regarded at present as requiring 'remedial' education. We also expect an increasing proportion of the children who at present receive separate special education to be educated in ordinary schools. If all this is to be successfully achieved, a great deal of planning and determination will be required. We believe that the conditions identified in this chapter, particularly (i) special training for teachers with responsibilities for children with special needs, (ii) sustained support at a high level from the various services and (iii) suitable facilities, must all be fulfilled if special educational provision on the scale envisaged is effectively to meet the wide range of needs presented.

References

(1) Integrating the disabled Report of the Snowdon Working Party (The National Fund for Research into Crippling Diseases 1976), p 7 .

(2) Statistics of education 1973 Vol 1 (HMSO 1974) and DES statistics for 1977.

(3) See Jamieson M, Parlett M and Pocklington K Towards Integration. A study of blind and partially sighted children in ordinary schools (National Foundation for Educational Research 1977), pp 63-69.

(4) Statistics of education 1976 Vol 1 (HMSO 1977) and unpublished DES statistics. (Comparable figures were not collected for 1977.)

(5) Cope C and Anderson E Special units in ordinary schools (University of London Institute of Education 1977).

(6) For details see Appendix 8.

(7) DES Circular 4/73. Welsh Office Circular 47/73, Staffing of special schools and classes (6 March 1973). Scottish Education Department Memorandum, Revision of Schools (Scotland) Code 1956 (October 1973).

(8) Garnett EJ, '"Special" children in a comprehensive' Special Education 3, 1 (1976), 8-11 and Webster G, Forder M and Upton J, 'Action for the vulnerable child', Special Education 4, 4 (1977), 26-28.

(9) Cope C and Anderson E, op cit.

(10) For details see Appendix 8.