Swann (1985)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Membership, Contents, Introduction

Part I: Setting the scene
Chapter 1 The nature of society
Chapter 2 Racism: theory and practice
Chapter 3 Achievement and underachievement
Chapter 3 continued

Part II: Education for all
Chapter 4 Ethnic minorities and education: historical perspective
Chapter 5 Multicultural education: further studies
Chapter 5 continued
Chapter 6 'Education for all': a new approach

Part III: Major areas of concern
Chapter 7 Language and language education
Chapter 8 Religion and the role of the school
Chapter 9 Teacher education; employment of ethnic minority teachers
Chapter 9 continued

Part IV: 'Other' ethnic minority groups
Introduction
Chapter 10 Chinese children
Chapter 11 Cypriot children
Chapter 12 Italian children
Chapter 13 Ukranian children
Chapter 14 Vietnamese children
Chapter 15 'Liverpool Blacks'
Chapter 16 Travellers' children
Reflections and conclusions

Part V:
Main conclusions and recommendations

Appendices

Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the Education of Children from Ethnic Minority Groups

Chairman: Lord Swann

Cmnd. 9453

London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office 1985
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.

Chapter 9 Teacher education and the employment of ethnic minority teachers
[pages 541 - 645]

This chapter

The conclusions which we have reached and the policies which we have advocated in this report clearly place particular responsibilities on the teaching profession, since teachers are the key figures in the education process, and changes and developments in classroom practice and in the overall ethos of schools depend to a very great degree on the cooperation and support of individual teachers. We have already referred in previous chapters to the implications for teachers of our policies in specific areas such as language, and we have devoted considerable attention to the controversial and complex issue of teachers' attitudes towards ethnic minority pupils, and, more generally, towards the changed and changing nature of British society. In this chapter we look more broadly at the preparation and support available to teachers through their training in relation both to the needs of ethnic minority pupils and the wider issues of cultural diversity. As the Home Affairs Committee observed in their 1981 Report (1);

'Teachers cannot reasonably be blamed for failing ethnic minority children if they have not had access to the sort of initial and in-service training which would enable them to perform more successfully.'

I Teacher education

1. Introduction

Organisation of teacher education

1.1 Teacher education falls into two broad phases - initial (or pre-service) training, and in-service training, incorporating both the induction training of newly qualified teachers or of teachers new to a school and the various forms of continuing in-service provision available to teachers throughout their careers.

Initial teacher training is provided by universities, polytechnics and colleges and institutes of higher education. It comprises three or four year courses leading to the Bachelor of Education (BEd) degree, or one year courses for graduates leading to the Postgraduate Certificate in Education (PGCE). There are a limited number of courses offering concurrent teacher training leading to a BA or BSc degree and a Certificate in Education. Initial teacher training courses offered by public sector institutions (polytechnics and colleges and institutes of higher education) are currently validated by some 14 different validating bodies - over half by the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA) and the remainder by 13 universities. In addition a number of universities offer their own degree level courses. Each teacher training institution and validating body has developed its own style of teacher training and a wide variety of models has evolved. The overall aim of initial teacher training can however be seen as to provide students with an awareness of the academic and professional basis of the education process and an introduction to teaching skills. On completion of a course of initial training a new teacher should have acquired a sound knowledge of the subject or subjects he or she will teach, and should be equipped with the professional skills and competence to begin a career in teaching with confidence.

Induction training. Initial training cannot however, nor is it intended to, provide teachers with a once and forever training experience. Nor, because of its generalised nature, can it hope adequately to prepare teachers to cope with every classroom and school situation. For this reason local education authorities and schools, to varying degrees, make arrangements for newly qualified teachers to undergo what is usually referred to as 'induction training', intended to provide them with specific information about the school and the locality in which they are to teach and to offer them advice, support and possibly an opportunity for further study. Induction training of this character may well be appropriate for any teacher joining a school staff for the first time and not only for newly qualified teachers.

In-service training is the umbrella term used to describe the wide variety of further training, as well as induction training, which may be available to practising teachers throughout their careers. It is, in its very nature, much more differentiated than initial training and may be provided not only by teacher training institutions but also by schools themselves and by local education authorities through their advisory staff and teachers' centres, and by subject associations, teacher unions and other bodies. It may be relatively formal and structured leading to 'named awards' or may consist simply of short courses, conferences, or workshops provided by institutions or by individual schools. In-service training is intended to be responsive to particular needs and especially to changing circumstances and situations and to promote new developments. It is generally a voluntary undertaking - teachers are not required to participate nor are schools obliged to release teachers to attend daytime courses although career advancement is increasingly dependent upon it.

Thus, as is frequently emphasised, teacher education is an indivisible process which can and should continue throughout a teacher's career.

Changing nature of the teaching force

1.2 The pattern of recruitment of new teachers has altered dramatically over recent years in the face of falling school rolls and constraints on public expenditure. DES figures (2) show the number of newly-qualified teachers obtaining full-time permanent appointments in maintained nursery, primary and secondary schools in England and Wales in 1982 was 9,137 (out of a total teaching force of 414,600) compared with a figure of 19,203 for 1978. Against this background of contraction, considerable emphasis in current discussions on teacher training has been placed on the in-service training available to practising teachers already working in schools. This has been seen as potentially the most effective means of directly influencing classroom practice in the short term, since the number of new entrants to the profession who have just undergone initial training is now considered too small to have any significant impact on the work of schools. Whilst we recognise the force of the argument which has led to this focus on in-service training, we believe that the role of initial training in shaping the attitudes and practices of the teaching force in the longer term must also be fully appreciated.

Academic standards

1.3 We now consider the contribution which we believe each of the stages of teacher education and training can make to the fundamental reorientation of the education system as a whole to incorporate the genuinely pluralist perspective for which we have argued in this report. We must however preface all of our comments in this chapter about the role of teacher training by emphasising our firm belief in the need to preserve and where necessary enhance the academic standard of the teaching force as a whole - as the government White Paper on 'Teaching Quality' (3) put it:

'Good teachers need to have a mastery of the subject matter they teach and the professional skills needed to teach it to children of different ages, ability, aptitudes and backgrounds.'

Overall context

2.1 Over the past decade or so the teacher training system in this country has experienced fundamental and far-reaching changes. The expansion of initial training during the 1960s has been followed by a rapid contraction of provision in response both to falling school rolls and public expenditure constraints - whereas, according to the 1983 White Paper on 'Teaching Quality', there were in the early 1970s a total of 180 initial teacher training institutions in the public sector in England and Wales, provision is currently we understand offered in some 62 public sector institutions. Alongside this major structural reorganisation, which has involved the amalgamation, diversification or closure of many institutions, there has also been the demise of the former sub-degree Certificate in Education qualification and the expansion of BEd degree and PGCE courses, often with consequent changes in validation arrangements, as a result of the government's decision to move towards an all-graduate teaching force. Against the background of these major upheavals, and in view of the confusion which exists as to the precise meaning and objectives of 'multicultural' education in schools, it is not entirely surprising that the attempts of the teacher training system over recent years to respond to the multiracial nature of society can perhaps best be seen as characterised by a confusion of aims and a lack of overall coherence.

Assimilation

2.2 During the early years of large scale immigration when, as we have recalled in Chapter Four, the aim of educational policies in relation to immigrant pupils was assimilation, the response of the teacher training system focused chiefly on developing in-service courses for teachers in multiracial schools. At initial training level, work was confined almost exclusively to those teacher training institutions actually located in areas of ethnic minority settlement, some of which began to offer specialist options for interested students dealing with what were regarded as the 'problems' presented by ethnic minority pupils. The majority of institutions made no response at all to the arrival of ethnic minority pupils, presumably because, in keeping with the thinking of the time, they believed that the difficulties being experienced in multiracial schools would be relatively short-lived. Institutions in non-multiracial areas believed in any case that any broader issues arising from changes in the composition of society were irrelevant to their students. A survey undertaken by the former National Committee for Commonwealth Immigrants in 1966 (4) indicated that only 15 per cent of institutions, mostly in areas of ethnic minority settlement, were running or intending to run even optional elements in their courses in the field of 'immigrant education'.

Integration

2.3 With the development of the integrationist view of ethnic minority needs, which attached greater importance to teachers understanding something of the cultural background of their pupils, albeit still as a basis for their eventual absorption into the majority community, specialist options which sought to cover the 'lifestyles' of different ethnic minority groups began to be offered, again primarily by institutions in multiracial areas, and largely through in-service training. The tendency was to focus on the cultures and religions of different countries and the 'problems' which ethnic minority pupils posed thus possibly reinforcing or even establishing negative stereotypes of ethnic minority pupils which could in fact inhibit a teacher's ability to respond positively to such pupils. Overall, developments were still very limited and in their 1972 study (5) Townsend and Brittan found that less than 1 in 5 probationary primary school teachers and only 1 in 16 probationary secondary teachers felt there had been any specific reference to the education of 'immigrant' children in their initial training, and the researchers observed that:

'... there is a valid argument that not all students will become teachers in multiracial schools. There is an equally valid argument that all students in colleges of education are expected to become teachers in a multiracial Britain, but this did not seem to have been reflected in the courses of the probationer teachers in the sample.'

2.4 As doubts began to be expressed about the desirability of assimilation, some attempts began to be made in the teacher training field in the 1970s to broaden the concept of 'ethnic minority needs' to 'multicultural education'. It began to be recognised that the multiracial nature of society might be of relevance to all teachers and thus all teacher training institutions. The National Committee for Commonwealth Immigrants had been very much ahead of the general trend of thinking when it had stated in 1967 (6) that:

'No teacher training institutions can now contract out from this problem (the multiracial society and the education of immigrants) and retain an easy conscience ... All students should be given the opportunity to study this problem during their training ...'

'We would like to see every college of education in the country teaching its students something about race relations and the problems of immigrants. To say that there is no need to educate all students about such matters because, as one college has said, "very few of our students go into schools where they are likely to meet mixed classes" is to miss the point ... Teachers should be equipped to prepare all their children for life in a multiracial society.'

'... the proportion of newly qualified teachers likely to meet substantial numbers of immigrant children in their first teaching posts is small, possibly as low as 15 per cent, and ... many training establishments ... are remote from areas of immigrant concentration and cannot easily arrange for their students to have contact with immigrant children during teaching practice or otherwise. Many complex demands are made on the training course and it would be impracticable to attempt to ensure that all newly qualified teachers had received a training which would equip them to take charge of classes including a substantial immigrant population immediately on entering schools.'

'... an understanding of the multicultural nature of society should feature in any general (teacher) education.'

'All students on initial or postgraduate courses can and should be made aware that, wherever they teach, they will be doing so in a multicultural society. This should be reflected not so much in special courses but throughout the training.'

2.5 1974 saw the publication of a joint report (11) prepared by the then Community Relations Commission and Association of Teachers in Colleges and Departments of Education which went into far greater detail than previous publications in considering the implications for teacher training of 'an ethnically and culturally diverse society'. This has remained one of the most important and influential documents in this field up to the present day and its findings have been constantly updated and reiterated by the successors to the original sponsoring organisations - the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE) and the National Association of Teachers in Further and Higher Education (NATFHE). This report changed the terms of the debate quite markedly even in its unequivocal starting point that:

'What happens to (ethnic minorities) in our schools is crucial to the development of a racially just society. The training of teachers and other professionals should equip them to work towards such a society.'

'Wherever students eventually teach, regardless of age range or type of child, they will be involved in making curriculum choices. Therefore, all students need to be given an opportunity to consider carefully the inherent attitudes and assumptions contained in the subject matter they teach and its manner of presentation. Highly ethnocentric and implicitly biased views may be transmitted to children, both in obvious ways such as in relation to history or geography teaching about countries from which migrants have come, and also less directly but nevertheless damagingly through the attitudes communicated by other subject specialists. Such teaching can both confirm prejudiced attitudes in all-white classes and aggravate difficulties of identity and confidence for children from minority groups. On the other hand, the curriculum can provide excellent opportunities for presenting other cultures and highlighting the achievement of all human groups. It is therefore important that teachers become sensitive to this function of the curriculum.'

'There is nothing new in asking teachers and teacher-trainers to re-examine their work in the light of social change. What is new, however, is the urgent challenge presented by the recent emergence of a society which contains not only the seeds of racial disharmony but also the potential for immense cultural and human enrichment. This is the situation which schools and colleges have to face. Far too many students are inadequately prepared to cope with it. Unless studies are updated to meet it they will become increasingly irrelevant and anachronistic.'

2.6 In their evidence to this Committee, NATFHE, reflecting on developments since the 1974 report, observed that:

'... the original Report was more tempered and sanguine than subsequent trends have justified. Worse, the response by institutions to the Report was extremely disappointing.'

- The HMI Report on 'Developments in the BEd Degree Course' (12) published in 1979, based on a study of provision in 3 polytechnics and 12 colleges, identified the educational implications of our multiracial society as:

'... an important area where treatment had been superficial or non-existent.'

'The compulsory elements of most courses did not ... bring students towards much awareness of the special needs of certain categories of children, in particular those with a cultural background different from that of the majority.'

- During 1979/1980 HMI undertook an inspection exercise of the coverage of multicultural issues at initial and in-service level in a sample of 46 out of the (then) 69 public sector teacher training institutions in England. Again, because the findings of this study do not appear to be widely known, we reproduce a paper summarising the findings as Annex B to this chapter. The overall picture revealed by this study in relation to initial training was, in the words of HMI:

'... not a particularly bright one.'

'The fact that a third of all the institutions train BEd students who, like the great majority of PGCE students, need take no account, during their preparation for teaching, of education in a multicultural society must be a matter for concern.'

'Only 15 replies out of 67 indicated that all students in training would receive some lectures or other form of input to their course which would give them information relevant to teaching in a multicultural society, and even fewer replies mentioned a compulsory element. It is therefore still possible for many teachers to emerge from their training without having covered the subject at all, though a wide range of optional courses and lectures are provided in various College and University departments.'

*In the questionnaires the teachers were asked to rate their views on a scale of 1-5: 1 if the statements in the left-hand column reflected their view and 5 if the statements in the right-hand column reflected their view, with the other markings to reflect views between these two extremes. - A more recent government survey (16) has reported that in 1981/1982 some 72 per cent of initial teacher training establishments in the UK included tuition about the particular needs of ethnic minority children in their courses. A further 5 per cent were considering introducing such provision.

The survey undertaken in 1983 for this Committee by Professor Craft and Dr Atkins on the provision for training teachers of ethnic minority community languages, (see Annex F to Chapter Seven) while reporting a dismal picture in that respect, also found that a large majority of institutions now include work on language repertoire and English language support across the curriculum in their courses.

2.7 Thus, looking at the situation overall, as Dr Richard Willey has put it in a draft report on teacher training (17):

'Such limited evidence as is available suggests that many schools and teacher education institutions are responding only slowly to the DES's stated pluralist, multicultural aims; there appears to be growing inconsistency between DES rhetoric and the content of much teacher education.'

Dual themes

2.8 What is perhaps most immediately apparent from this consideration of the various recent studies of the 'multicultural' aspects of teacher education, apart from the general paucity of provision, is the continuing confusion of two distinct forms of provision - on the one hand, course provision designed specifically to give student teachers the particular knowledge and skills needed to teach in a multiracial school, and, on the other hand, the preparation of all students in initial training for teaching pupils in a multiracial society, irrespective of whether the students concerned will be teaching in an 'all-white' or multiracial school. The confusion of these distinct perceptions of multicultural education, as relating either to the immediate multiracial situation in a particular school or to the broader multiracial social context, has of course contributed to much of the misunderstanding and lack of progress in this field up to now. As we have already emphasised, we regard a concern for both these complementary elements as equally crucial to our philosophy of 'Education for All'. Just as we believe however that rather different approaches to the curriculum will be called for in different schools, so within teacher training, distinct approaches will also be needed to cater for different sets of circumstances. There are nevertheless a number of broad principles which we feel must underlie the development of an appropriate teacher training response to the needs of today's society.

The task for teacher education

2.9 We have already made clear that we see all schools having a responsibility to offer their pupils an education which reflects the realities of life in today's multiracial Britain. We regard 'Education for All' as essentially synonymous with a 'good' education, since an education which is not based on sound educational principles and which fails to take account of the variety of cultural, religious and linguistic backgrounds which now make up British society, and, more broadly, which fails to incorporate a global perspective, would be anachronistic and would prepare pupils, both those from the various minority and the majority communities, for an unreal world. Similarly a curriculum which does not acknowledge and seek to challenge manifestations of racism at both individual and institutional level, through enhancing pupils' political literacy and particularly their appreciation of how power is exercised, and by whom, in this society, would, in our view constitute a fundamental mis-education and would certainly fail to lay the foundations for the kind of genuinely pluralist society which we envisaged at the opening of this report. If a genuine pluralist approach to education is thus justified as desirable and indeed essential on educational grounds, then it is clear that in order to be equipped, in professional terms, to offer their pupils a full and balanced education all teachers must be given the appropriate knowledge and skills for providing such an education. As Dr Richard Willey has again put it in his draft report:

'... it is the teachers and teacher educators working in the different curriculum areas who must undertake the type of review which follows from the assumption of a multicultural objective, and who face the complex decisions about detailed objectives and priorities. Teacher trainers in particular have a key role to play; in the forum provided by the courses which they already teach, they can stimulate and lead consideration of the implications of cultural pluralism for existing teaching strategies and content ... The objective of a multicultural society is in the process of closer definition ... Teachers have a central part to play in this process and they must be given the opportunities to play it. If they are not, not only will minority ethnic and cultural groups become increasingly disillusioned with an education system which is failing to respond adequately to their presence, but there will be a widening gap between society's theoretical aspirations and the reality of what is happening in schools.'

'No teacher should lack understanding of the purposes of the curriculum and its relationship to the wider society; nor should a teacher lack understanding of the ways in which society and schools are inter-related, ways in which the background of pupils' lives influence what they bring to their learning, and the expectations which they, their families and their teachers have of education. The student's course of training should enable him to place his work within this broader framework of educational meaning and purpose.'

'We (teachers) accept the responsibility of fulfilling society's demands on us, without accepting responsibility for the nature of those demands. We have to accept that society is the product of the education system and we are the custodians of the future. What we are doing in schools today will be reflected in the society of tomorrow. We cannot wait for the world outside school to change, the change begins with us. Tomorrow's multicultural Britain is the pupils we have in school now. The future will be what our pupils make it, and we give them the tools.'

a. It is a teacher's responsibility to know and understand the children he teaches to the best of his ability - in particular to know and understand those social and cultural elements of an individual child's upbringing and experience which contribute to the formation of his distinctive personality, and to accept and to value these distinctive characteristics, so that his understanding of them informs the content and method of his teaching of each child.

b. It is also a teacher's responsibility to develop his understanding throughout his career, of the complex and changing nature of society, and of the knowledge, attitudes and skills needed by children growing up in such a society - so that his understanding of these informs the content and methods of his teaching of all children.

'a.' implies a special responsibility for any teacher who is teaching a child of ethnic minority background (such children are by no means peculiar to the obviously 'multiracial' schools in inner urban areas); 'b.' implies a responsibility for all teachers of all children to prepare those children for life in a multiracial society. Thus these statements entail a common set of objectives for the initial vocational education of all teachers.

a. Affective

On completion of their initial vocational education, all student teachers should accept and understand the practical implications for teachers of:

1. the uniqueness of each human being

2. the elements of common experience shared by all human beings.

3. the principles of equal rights and of justice.

4. the value of the best achievements of all nations, cultures and civilisations.

5. diversity and strangeness as sources of interest and stimulus rather than fear and threat.

6. the cultural diversity and complexity of British society in the past, the present and the future.

7. the dynamic and constantly-evolving character of all living cultures.

b. Cognitive/propositional

On completion of their initial teacher education, all student teachers should know, and understand the practical implications for teachers of:

1. the meaning in scientific usage of the terms 'race', 'culture' and 'community'.

2a. the historic reasons for the cultural diversity of modern Britain, and in particular, the reasons for immigration of various ethnic groups during the 20th century.

2b. the identity and main distinctive characteristics of major cultural minorities in present-day Britain, including their religious and social customs. the character and status of their languages, and their moral and cultural values.

2c. the ethnic composition of the area served by the college.

2d. the ethnic composition of their home areas.

3. the influences which contribute to the development of attitudes towards self and others in a growing child, and in particular, the special factors influencing the sense of identity of an ethnic minority child. and the factors likely to implant or reinforce hostile attitudes towards groups different from his own in any child, and to cause racial discrimination in practice.

On completion of their initial teacher education all student teachers should be able to:

1a. recognise, and constantly reassess his/her own attitudes, beliefs and understanding.

1b. participate in rational discourse, argue for or against a case, change his/her mind in response to evidence, argument or experience.

1c. communicate effectively with adults and children whose range of cultural and social experience differs from his/her own.

1d. understand and apply the principles of equal rights and justice in his/her dealings with adults and children.

1e. evaluate objectively the achievements of any individual, cultural group, nation or civilisation, irrespective of whether s/he identifies with it or not.

2a. will be intelligible to each child in terms of his own experience and upbringing.

2b. will enable each child to draw on the resources of his experience and upbringing in a positive way.

2c. will provide all children with accurate information about the world as it is at present, and in particular the character of British Society.

2d. will encourage all children to value the diversity of humanity, and in particular, the cultural richness of a multicultural society, as sources of stimulus and interest.

3a. factual inaccuracy, especially in the presentation of information about racial and cultural differences.

3b. stereotyping, especially in the presentation of information about distinctive cultural groups (in Britain and overseas).

3c. bias, especially in the interpretation of the values, beliefs and cultural achievements of other nations and civilisations.

4a. is helped to overcome specific learning difficulties, in particular, difficulties in the use of English.

4b. has opportunities to communicate with the teacher and with other children, drawing upon his/her own experience and expressing his own ideas, attitudes and beliefs, in the expectation that these will be received with positive interest and valued in their own terms.

4c. has opportunities to hear and read about the experiences, attitudes and beliefs different from his/herself.

2.11 The response of the initial teacher training system to 'multicultural' concerns has tended to take three main forms - compulsory 'core' studies, specialist optional courses, and, more recently, attempts to develop an implicit 'multicultural awareness' in all aspects of a course, through what has come to be termed 'permeation'. We believe that each of these approaches has an essential role to play in preparing all students, whether entering teaching through the BEd or the PGCE route, to fulfil their professional responsibilities in today's society and they should be regarded as inter-related and complementary aspects of an overall training process.

Permeation

2.12 The concept of permeation was heralded as long ago as 1974 when the CRC/ATCDE Report argued that the training of students to teach in a multicultural context:

'... cannot be mechanistic, involving merely adding a little here or taking away a little there, whilst leaving the main body of the student's educational experience untouched.'

'it is plainly desirable that all teaching should be as broad-minded as possible and so should reflect the diversity of modern Britain, and we recognise the advantage that would accrue to racial harmony were all children made to realise that Britain is a multiracial society. Teacher training courses should be permeated by this understanding ... We recommend that every initial teacher training course should be examined to ensure that it accurately reflects the society in which those who follow the course will be working.'

• All elements in the course are purposefully directed towards the development of the pupils for whom the teachers in training will ultimately be responsible as citizens of a racially just, pluralist democracy.
• Teachers in training come to appreciate the fundamental values of Britain as a pluralist democracy, and can face with confidence the particular professional challenges of teaching in the schools of such a society.
• The fundamental norms within education which students are being trained to present are not those seen to be exclusively based on 'white' ethnocentric traditions and values, but are universal in character, being drawn from many cultures and being accorded equal respect as manifestations of the variety of human responses to environmental circumstances.
• The language of 'differentiation' on racial grounds would be considered and rejected and the various concepts of 'racism': intentional, unintentional, institutionalised, would be understood, and the student equipped to combat such phenomena, as well as the manifestations of personal prejudice in him/herself, in colleagues and in pupils.
• The implications of citizenship of a pluralist society are brought to bear upon the content of the subjects and curriculum areas that the students intend to teach.

'If there is a contradiction between the theory advanced in a separate course (on multicultural education) and students' experience in most of their other studies, there may be misunderstanding of the need to include multicultural education as a compulsory part of training and a negative reaction or even resentment from some students ... There is a danger that ... the theories expounded in specialist multicultural courses, both optional and compulsory, bear little relation to the education provided by the institution's major teaching departments ... If the principle of permeation is accepted, it follows that all the subject areas and disciplines contributing to teacher education will need to consider the particular relevance to their own specialisms of a positive attitude to cultural diversity.'

'Whilst the Union wholly supports the concept of "permeation", and considers that education for a multicultural society should be an integral part of all training courses, there is a danger that it may be possible to pay lip service to ideals which have become fashionable or to respond to growing concern and criticism without much tangible evidence that the ideals are put into practice. This strategy of "permeation" may be effective where the level of awareness and commitment amongst course tutors is high, but without specific, detailed plans for compulsory input to initial courses, backed up by specialist options for those who wish to pursue the issues in more depth and widen their expertise, it may be just a paper promise.'

Core studies

2.16 If our view of 'Education for All' as relevant to every school in the country, whether multiracial or 'all-white', is accepted, it is clear that every student teacher must have at least some opportunity in the course of their training to consider the issues involved. If all initial training courses were already permeated with the broad principles discussed above this would of course ensure that this was so, but it is clear that even if the policies which we have advocated are adopted immediately, it will still be some time before all initial training courses are fully and effectively permeated by a pluralist perspective. We therefore believe there is a strong case in the immediate future for some reference to be made to pluralist issues within the central and compulsory 'core' of the initial training received by all teachers, as an essential 'staging post' and catalyst to overall permeation. Such a core element can also be seen as justified on the grounds of enabling teachers to fulfil their responsibilities in relation to the reality of British society and indeed the modern world today. As the 1982 HMI discussion document on initial training put it (our underlining):

'An effective course of training should include for all students practical experience and knowledge of class management and control: knowledge of the variety that constitutes the full range of pupils in terms of ability, behaviour, social background and culture: experience and knowledge of the level of expectation appropriate to the performance of children of differing ages, abilities, aptitudes and backgrounds: awareness of the ethical, spiritual and aesthetic values of society as well as its political, economic and legal foundations: respect for and understanding of the cultural heritage which belongs to the children growing up in our society: sensitivity to the diversity of cultural background in today's school population. This list, while not comprehensive, includes those aspects of the teacher's skill which relate to our multicultural society, the recognition of children with special needs in the ordinary classroom and the preparation of pupils for their working and adult lives. While some students may wish to pursue further specialist options in these concerns, they should be part of the basic professional preparation of all teachers in relation to the subjects they will teach to the children of any "normal" classroom.'

Needs of ethnic minority pupils

2.18 We regard an equally important aspect of 'Education for All' as meeting the needs of all children in a positive manner, which would include catering for any particular educational needs which some ethnic minority pupils may have as a result of their cultural or linguistic background. It has been argued that, since such needs can, by definition, arise only in a multiracial school, the preparation of teachers to cater for them can only be achieved through in-service provision if a teacher joins a multiracial school or through specialist options at initial training level in those institutions whose students are likely to be teaching in multiracial areas. This argument overlooks two important points - firstly, the increasing mobility of the ethnic minority communities which prevents such a rigid dividing line being drawn between multiracial and 'all-white' areas, and secondly, the present teacher employment situation, where it is increasingly difficult for new teachers to choose their first teaching post and to 'predict' therefore that any teacher will never teach in a multiracial school. Multi-racial schools can no longer be regarded as unique to urban areas such as Manchester or Bradford since schools in many other parts of the country now have pupils of ethnic minority origin. On the question of teacher employment, as the Home Affairs Committee observed in their 1981 Report:

'Most young teachers will find themselves teaching in a multiracial school either on starting their teaching career or within 5 years of their induction. Nor are those who train in the West Country or East Anglia any less likely to be teaching in the West Midlands or ILEA than those who trained at Walsall of Goldsmiths. In a mobile and contracting profession, there is every reason why teachers trained at Exeter, for example, may obtain their first teaching post in Leicester, and find themselves unprepared for the experience of teaching Asian children.'

'... initial teacher training should not skimp on providing more specialised instruction on the skills needed for teaching English as a second language (E2L); for offering second-stage support for E2L learners, for recognising and coping with other language differences, and for understanding social patterns which may be different from accepted norms ... it is evident that such instruction is too often regarded as ... suitable for only those teachers who are likely to be seeking posts in multiracial areas. Nothing could be more misleading.'

2.19 As an illustration of the various ways in which the areas of work discussed above have been incorporated into the core studies of their BEd courses by various institutions, we attach as Annex D to this chapter two examples of course outlines, taken from the evidence which we have received. Whilst many educationists would accept that the inclusion of the kind of core courses we have advocated is feasible within a 3 or 4 year BEd course, it has been suggested that the time constraints of a PGCE course, even when extended to 36 weeks, are such as to preclude anything other than a very superficial consideration of 'multicultural' issues. The view has therefore been expressed that it is preferable to look to either specialist options at initial level or in-service provision for PGCE-trained entrants. We believe however that the kind of core provision which we have discussed above is equally valid and essential for the overall reorientation of all initial training courses in the immediate future, whether through the BEd or PGCE route. It is important to recognise that the current trend is for an increasing proportion of new teachers to enter the profession through the PGCE route and this adds urgency to the need to incorporate a pluralist perspective within the core studies of such courses. It is likely that few degree courses will have given consideration to issues related to today's multiracial society and specific questions relating to the role of education in this context will rarely if ever have been raised. The risk that PGCE students will regard specialist optional courses in this field as irrelevant and superfluous is perhaps therefore even greater than for other students, unless a general introduction to the issues involved is provided for all students in their core studies. Whilst we recognise that time for the core of a PGCE course is limited, we believe that given appropriate skill and sensitivity it should be possible to avoid creating or confirming stereotypes of ethnic minority groups or focusing only on 'problems' and 'difficulties', and instead to discuss issues such as the influence of racism and the need for a broader approach to the curriculum for all pupils which may lead some students to pursue such questions further through optional studies. Whilst again we would not seek to put forward a 'model' PGCE core course, and we have indeed had some difficulty in finding examples which fully reflect our viewpoint, we include in Annex D details of the approach adopted by one university department of education which, whilst we would not endorse it wholeheartedly, gives some indication of the range and kind of considerations we have in mind.

Optional courses

2.20 Much of the provision at initial level in relation to multicultural education has been in the form of optional courses, concerned either with specific topics, such as the language needs of ethnic minority pupils, or more general themes such as race relations. If such issues feature however as simply one or two options in competition with a number of others, students may well feel their career interests are better served by choosing other optional courses - as the HMI survey described in Annex B observed:

'The usefulness of a course on slow learners, audio-visual aids or some such topic may well override a student's interest in multicultural issues, as the anxieties of teaching practice draw near. Faced with some sets of options students may feel they have very little choice.'

2.21 This is not to suggest that there is no place for specialist optional courses in initial training. On the contrary, providing such optional courses develop from and build upon a basic understanding of teaching in a culturally pluralist society, received through a student's core studies and ultimately from a fully permeated course, they will continue to play an important role in catering for the particular needs and interests of certain students. The form which such optional courses may take can clearly vary widely from those relating explicitly to the particular linguistic needs which some ethnic minority pupils may have, to those concerned more broadly with the opportunities available to any teacher teaching in a multiracial school to broaden and enhance their teaching and the need for all teachers to reflect a pluralist perspective in their work. We attach at Annex E some examples of optional provision offered within BEd courses, drawn from the evidence we have received. Such options are however, by no means limited to BEd courses and we received a number of examples of similar options offered within PGCE courses. We attach as Annex F to this chapter a paper prepared by the tutor of such an optional PGCE course on multicultural education, discussing the range of issues covered and raising some interesting points about the reactions of students.

Practical experience

2.22 Up to now we have focused primarily on the 'taught' elements of initial training courses. However if students, especially those from 'all-white' areas, are to be given a genuine awareness of the complexity of British society, it is clear that such course provision should be complemented by appropriate practical experience. As the evidence we received from one teacher training institution put it:

'... a genuine synthesis of educational theory, practice and experience needs to be developed in programmes of initial training, and ... the perspectives of multiracial education offer a genuine and practicable opportunity for such development to be realised. We would therefore urge that as many students as is possible should have experience of working in schools of cultural and racial diversity during their period of training in order that this experience might both inform and benefit from college or institute based programmes.'

'Whilst one would expect a student's experience of multi-ethnic schools ... to be related to the proximity of training institutions to areas of settlement by immigrant communities, this was by no means universal. One third of the institutions offering courses on education in a multicultural society did not bring students into sustained contact with multi-ethnic schools or communities, even though some were in areas of substantial ethnic minority populations.'

Our view

2.23 Thus, to sum up, we would regard core studies, optional courses and permeation as having equally important and complementary roles to play in an overall initial training process which provides students with the essential knowledge and professional skills needed to teach in a pluralist society and to offer their pupils an education which is relevant to the world as it is today. We would envisage permeation setting the appropriate context for all students' work, core studies providing all students with an introduction to the broad issues relevant to a pluralist society as well as developing a basic understanding of the nature of and response to the particular educational needs which may arise in a multiracial school, and specialist optional courses offering the opportunity for further in-depth study. It is clear that it is the process of permeation that has the most wide-ranging implications for institutions and it is therefore here that we believe the greatest efforts should be directed, through institutions reviewing and evaluating their course provision to incorporate a pluralist perspective throughout. We would endorse the view taken by Dr Richard Willey in his draft report that:

'If the permeation of teacher education programmes is to be made a reality, the teacher education institutions must formally consider the implications of cultural pluralism for the professional training they provide and adopt appropriate policy objectives ... It is only determined initiation of such a process which can eventually produce effective teacher education for a culturally plural society.'

Role of CATE

2.24 One major current initiative in the field of teacher training which we feel could accelerate the pace of progress towards the incorporation of a pluralist perspective in all initial training courses is the establishment of a Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education (CATE) to advise the Secretaries of State on the approval of initial teacher training courses in England and Wales (19). The new Council has been asked to review all existing approved courses of initial training and to scrutinise proposals for new courses in the light of specified criteria designed to ensure a consistent standard of training commensurate with the professional qualities required of a teacher. Since we have argued here that, in order to be professionally equipped to fulfil his or her teaching responsibilities, a teacher must have acquired both the knowledge and skills needed to prepare all pupils for life in a pluralist society, and must also have a basic understanding of the particular educational needs which some ethnic minority pupils may have, we believe it is essential that these considerations are taken into account by the Council in its assessment of course provision. We are encouraged therefore that the criteria laid down by the government include the following reference to the implications of cultural diversity and to the need to guard against the possible influence of racism:

'Students should be prepared ... to teach the full range of pupils whom they are likely to encounter in an ordinary school, with their diversity of ability, behaviour, social background and ethnic and cultural origins. They will need to learn how to respond flexibly to such diversity and to guard against preconceptions based on the race or sex of pupils.'

'Students should be made aware of the wide range of relationships with parents and others - which teachers can expect to develop in a diverse society, and of the role of the school within a community ... They will also need to have a basic understanding of the type of society in which their pupils are growing up, with its cultural and racial mix ...'

Selection of students and qualified teacher status

2.25 One of the main messages of the government's recent pronouncements on teacher training has been a desire for a more stringent selection process of candidates for admission to teacher training, coupled with a wish to ensure that qualified teacher status should not be awarded to any student who, although he or she demonstrates the necessary academic ability, lacks the 'professional competence' required of a teacher. Throughout this report we have highlighted the need for all teachers to have positive attitudes towards teaching in a pluralist context and, by extension, this means that we would wish to see such attitudes manifested and developed amongst student teachers. As long ago as 1971, the DES Education Survey 13 stressed that:

'A student should honestly examine the premise that a multicultural society in twentieth century Britain is both right and natural. If his attitude to a racially mixed class is wrong, no amount of knowledge, no mastery of techniques will make him effective as a teacher of immigrant children.'

'Selection of the right students is the first step in providing the right kind of teachers.'

'In assessing the personal qualities of candidates, institutions should look in particular for a sense of responsibility, a robust but balanced outlook, awareness, sensitivity, enthusiasm and facility in communication.'

Validation

2.26 It is clear that if the developments advocated here are to take place, a leading role must be played by the various validating bodies to exert their influence to encourage all initial training institutions to reappraise and revise their provision. With the ending of college validation by a number of universities a considerable responsibility in this respect falls on the Council for National Academic Awards (CNAA), and we have therefore been encouraged by the initiatives taken since the establishment of the CNAA Working Group on Multicultural Education. In particular we were impressed by the positive stance adopted by the Working Group in a discussion paper, produced in July 1984, with the following emphasis on the skills needed by student teachers to fulfil their role in a pluralist society:

'Given the wider role that teachers in schools and in further education have to play in (the) recognition of the importance of multicultural and antiracist education, there is a need to consider the implications for their education and professional preparation. In designing courses of teacher education, institutions should bear in mind the following. Teachers need to:

i. be equipped to prepare all young people for life in a multicultural and racially harmonious society

ii. have an awareness and understanding of racism both historically and in contemporary society and to be conscious of the various forms in which racism can manifest itself

iii. have an awareness of intercultural relations and of their social and economic contexts

iv. be able to teach with skill and sensitivity in schools and further education institutions recognising any particular needs of ethnic minority pupils and students.

v. interact effectively with colleagues in the institutional framework in relation to these issues.'

3. In-service training

3.1 We now turn to the varied forms of further training which are offered to teachers in the course of their teaching careers - what can collectively be termed 'in-service' provision. This can broadly be divided into, on the one hand, the training offered to newly qualified teachers on taking up a teaching post, or to teachers who are new to a school, and, on the other hand, the bewildering variety of other forms of further training which may be available to any teacher in the course of his or her career. We consider each of these types of in-service training in turn.

Induction training

Background

3.2 Specific programmes aimed at introducing newly qualified staff to an organisation, preparing them for their specific responsibilities and offering them general advice and practical help and support are a feature of most professions. On the face of it the teaching profession is no different from any other in this respect. It has long been accepted that newly qualified teachers in their probationary year can benefit from a programme of professional initiation and support - usually termed 'induction training'. The James Report emphasised the vital importance of the induction year and this was endorsed by the then government in their 1972 (20) White Paper:

'There is no major profession to which a new entrant, however thorough his initial training, can be expected immediately to make a full contribution. The government share the view of the James Committee that a teacher on first employment needs, and should be released part-time to profit from, a systematic programme of professional initiation, guided experience and further study.'

3.3 A survey undertaken by the DES in 1979 (21) found that:

'In maintained nursery, primary, secondary and special education about 90 per cent of teachers taking up first full-time permanent appointments in 1978-1979 were involved in some sort of induction programme.'

A survey undertaken by HMI in 1981 detailed in the Report 'The New Teacher in School' considered in detail the provision made by schools and LEAs for induction training for probationary teachers in a sample of 294 schools, both primary and secondary. In relation to the school's role in induction, HMI found that:

'In most cases schools had thought out their role vis-à-vis new teachers in the light of their level of expectation, and this had led to a range of policies from non-intervention to over-protectiveness. Between the two extremes there was evidence in very many schools of a sincere and honest endeavour to incorporate new teachers into the staff team and to help them in their professional development ... There was wide recognition of the importance, for this, of the "right, happy atmosphere in which to work", and a general background of support and encouragement from the staff as a whole. In some schools, both primary and secondary, this was envisaged as a wholly informal and unplanned state of affairs. In others, induction was considered a more purposeful process requiring some level of structure, sometimes a designated member of staff with responsibility for the new teachers, and a clear objective such as "the continuation of the probationer's professional training" or "building on the work of the initial training institution".'

In relation to the LEAs role in induction, HMI found that in over half of the schools, the probationers attended planned induction programmes provided by their LEAs and in over 85 per cent of cases, the probationary teachers attended meetings organised by the authority. Reporting on the views expressed by the heads of the schools about LEA provision for induction, HMI found:

'A number of heads commented on the abandonment, no doubt in part for financial reasons, of programmes formerly organised by LEAs, while others suggested that current provision was less extensive than it had been. Some authorities had appointed so few probationers in the current year that previous patterns of induction were no longer suitable.'

• introductory meetings with officers, advisers and sometimes members of education committees;
• visits by LEA advisers or inspectors to observe the new teacher at work and to offer advice and help;
• attendance at conferences, courses and workshops; and
• an authority handbook or guidelines on the LEAs work.

'... the inadequacies of as many as a third of those (schools) in the sample may lead to the new teachers failing to achieve their potential - or at least in their doing so more painfully and more slowly.'

General conclusions

3.4 We believe that a comprehensive and structured programme of induction training provided jointly by the LEA and the school is an essential phase in the career development of a newly qualified teacher providing a 'bridge' between the more generalised emphases of initial training courses and the specific demands of a first teaching post. We are concerned therefore that, in the face of financial constraints, the scale of provision at induction level is declining and we hope that steps will be taken to seek to ensure that adequate and effective induction training is offered to all newly qualified teachers. Induction training is clearly important for new teachers who have entered through the PGCE route in view of the shorter time which they will have been able to devote in their training to developing their practical teaching skills, in comparison with BEd students - as HMI concluded in 'The New Teacher in School':

'... a programme of induction, desirable as it is for all new teachers, is particularly necessary for the PGCE-trained teachers, with their much shorter base of training, if they are to acquire an early mastery of a range of teaching skills.'

3.5 Induction training can play a crucial role in preparing teachers to incorporate a pluralist perspective in their work and to educate their pupils for life in today's multiracial society. Where initial training may have failed to devote sufficient attention to this aspect of a student's development, induction training can, in part at least, serve to set a teacher's work within a school within a broader context. A newly qualified or equally an experienced teacher entering a multiracial school for the first time, will, in our view, need substantial induction training to provide them with the background knowledge needed to offer all pupils an appropriate and relevant education, free from stereotypes of particular minority groups, and to recognise the opportunities offered in a multiracial situation. It must be emphasised that some new teachers joining multiracial schools may not have taken a specialist option concerned with the needs of ethnic minority pupils in their initial training and so may be especially in need of such specific provision. Even where a teacher has undertaken such specialist study or where the core of his or her initial training course has incorporated some reference to ethnic minority needs, it is clear that neither of these forms of 'introductory' provision can, taken by themselves, have adequately prepared that teacher to teach effectively in a multiracial school, unless followed up and supported through induction training. At a specific level, any teacher who finds him or herself faced for the first time with a class which includes a number of pupils for whom, for example, English is not a first language, or whose cultural 'frame of reference' is substantially different from their own, will need particular help and support in responding to the needs of these pupils. Induction training should also help a 'new' teacher to respond positively to any manifestations of intentional or unintentional racism which may occur within the school, including matters such as racist name-calling or graffiti, and to take account sensitively of the variety of backgrounds and experiences of pupils in the actual teaching situation, for example in the choice of textbooks or course materials. The 1974 CRC/ATCDE Report on 'Teacher Education for a Multicultural Society' (see paragraph 2.5 above) set out three broad areas of concern which the induction training of a new teacher working in a multiracial school should cover. We reproduce these below, since, although some of the materials referred to have since been overtaken, these still summarise the major issues which we too believe should be included in induction training:

i. an opportunity to examine and discuss material that may be of use. e.g. SCOPE Stages one and two. CONCEPT 7-9, Breakthrough to Literacy, or any material evolved in the locality. This material could be discussed with experienced teachers who are actually using it; the local colleges could provide consultants on language and on particular questions, for example the adapration of the material to different ages and background.

ii. an opportunity to study the local social and demographic situation. This will mean looking at the numbers, composition and the movement of immigrant groups and will involve personal contact with the leaders of these groups and those who work with them e.g. community relations councils and youth and community workers. For those working with older pupils the formation of links with detached youth workers may be particularly important. It would be useful for the young teachers to be given insights into patterns of family discipline and religious and socio-political beliefs.

iii. an opportunity for these young teachers to discuss their problems of discipline and class management in small groups with skilful experienced teachers and tutors present. Perhaps the greatest need in the first year is for more counselling on how to handle explicit incidents of racial hostility, how to win the confidence of minority group pupils who tend to form groups and support each other.'

• how to avoid ethnocentrism within particular subjects;
• how to handle manifestations of racism amongst pupils;
• how to relate to pupils from a wide range of backgrounds and experiences;
• how to meet the particular needs of some ethnic minority pupils, for example in terms of language;
• how to support, and be sensitive to any cultural and religious factors which might influence their lives (but without 'stereotyping' or placing undue emphasis on 'problems');
• how to utilise positively the range of pupils' experience within a class.

3.7 We now consider the range of other forms of in-service training available to teachers in various contexts in the course of their careers. Although we believe that in the longer term we must look to fundamental changes in initial teacher training to bring about the reorientation of education which we have advocated, in view of the limited number of new teachers entering the profession it is clear that in-service training can influence the education offered to pupils now in school in the most direct and immediate way. As HMI has observed (22):

'Certainly the influence of newly trained teachers is highly important, but they will form only a small minority of the teaching force until well on into the 80s. The quality of work in the secondary schools throughout that period will depend largely upon those who are already teaching. Yet the combined effects of falling rolls and economic stringency will make their task the more difficult. Closure or amalgamation of schools, reduction of promotion prospects, an imbalance of staff specialisms within schools may all put strain upon teachers' morale, dampen their vitality and enthusiasm for change and development, and strengthen the tendency towards traditional styles of teaching. Yet new demands will continue to emerge, as changes in society are mirrored by changes in schools, in the curriculum, and in the subjects which contribute to it. In these circumstances further training becomes a necessity rather than a luxury.'

Early provision

3.8 When the emphasis of educational policy-making in relation to ethnic minority pupils was on assimilationist objectives, the main, and often the only, response of the teacher training system was to offer short in-service courses in multiracial areas focusing on the 'problems' experienced by ethnic minority pupils and intended chiefly for those teachers, especially in the language or 'remedial' fields, who were working with these children. Even the provision of such courses, which were often the only support available to teachers who found themselves faced with large numbers of immigrant pupils many of whom spoke no English at all, was relatively limited. Although the available data are at best somewhat patchy, since many of these courses were arranged on an informal, ad hoc basis, DES Education Survey 13 in 1971 found that only one per cent of teachers in English County Boroughs had attended specific courses related to 'teaching immigrants' between September 1964 and August 1967, and also reported the findings of an HMI survey undertaken in 1968 that in only half of the 40-50 LEAs with a high concentration of immigrants had such courses been organised.

3.9 In-service provision continued to expand gradually however and Townsend found, in his 1971 survey of LEA support for multicultural education (23), that 41 of the then 146 LEAs claimed to be offering in-service courses in this field, although the majority of these were short, part-time courses. LEA-organised courses on the teaching of immigrants in the academic years 1967-1970 were found to have catered for some 5,760 teachers (including of course some 'multiple attendances' by the same teachers). The complementary study by Townsend and Brittan in 1972 of practice in multiracial schools, found that only a total of 7 per cent of staff in the 230 schools studied had attended relevant in-service courses in the three years prior to the survey as shown in the following table:

3.10 At this time the majority of in-service courses offered were still aimed at specialist teachers and tended to recruit only those teachers who were working directly with 'immigrant' pupils such as E2L teachers, rather than their colleagues who were also working in multiracial schools. Indeed Townsend's 1971 survey of LEA provision referred to:

'... the considerable difficulty of interesting secondary school teachers in courses on the education of immigrant pupils other than teachers from English or remedial departments.'

'... the absence of a concerted drive by DES to get courses set up and attended ... first of all (through) a serious attempt to persuade the institutes of education and, through them the colleges, to set up courses; and secondly, some effort to impress upon local education authorities that they should release teachers to attend courses.'

Research studies

3.11 There are no comprehensive and up to date data relating to the provision of in-service training relating to the needs of ethnic minority children or encouraging a broader view of the curriculum for all pupils. There have nevertheless been some studies in this field and we summarise the main findings below, before setting out our own views on the role of inservice training.

The HMI inspection exercise undertaken during 1979/1980 and detailed in Annex B found:

'... fairly scant treatment of social and cultural issues within inservice provision generally.'

a balanced programme of long and short in-service course provision in close cooperation with its Local Authority's advisory service in multicultural education.'

'A very disturbing feature of our survey was the number of institutions which reported a drop in the take-up of in-service courses for serving teachers in multicultural education; this was blamed on the lack of possibilities for secondment by LEAs.'

'... only 4 out of some 80 institutions in England and Wales specifically mention a multicultural element in their programmes for the in-service BEd degree. But many institutions offer courses in the sociology of education, language, urban and community studies, ethical, philosophical and political issues, and curriculum studies in this award, and multicultural perspectives might occur here or elsewhere. As regards advanced Diplomas, only 10 out of 320 currently listed are specifically related to multicultural education ... As to higher degrees, no single MA/MEd taught course anywhere in England and Wales appears to be devoted to multicultural education.'

'... of 91 courses to be mounted in England between April 1981 and March 1982, only five are to be devoted to topics such as 'teaching and learning in multicultural primary schools.'

'The difficulty most often mentioned by other authorities was that of attracting to in-service courses teachers who were thought most to need them. Several authorities said that they were concerned that their courses in practice involved "preaching to the converted".'

The DES Memorandum on Compliance with the EC Directive on the Education of Children of Migrant Workers (referred to in paragraph 2.6) reported that:

'... in 1981/1982 over half (53 per cent) of the establishments providing in-service training made specific provision on meeting the needs of ethnic minority children. A further 7 per cent were considering introducing such provision for the first time.'

'Our investigations have left us in no doubt about the fragmentary and incomplete picture of in-service teacher education for a multicultural society. Indeed it appears non-existent in many areas and in none does it seem wholly adequate.'

'... the range or provision and its distribution largely arise by the chance incidence of local and even personal initiatives rather than through coordinated policy.'

'... a substantial potential demand for in-service courses for preparing teachers to work in a multicultural society.'

'... despite the encouragement from HMI and the teachers' organisations the recruitment of teachers from schools and local authorities with relatively few children from minority groups is largely non-existent.'

'It is important that courses should not leave participants with any impression of total understanding, rather an informed position which they can maintain and develop. The diverse and changing aspirations among and between sub-groups within each minority are such that participants can almost never be fully in touch with the complexities involved. Courses should also always caution teachers about the danger of encapsulating children within their own perspectives and perceptions, however sensitive. Courses should also encourage participants to explore alternative styles to learning which may be appropriate to particular children, and to observe successful experiences outside their own classroom which may be incorporated in curricula which develop particular skills. Finally, we reiterate that all those who are concerned with the determination of content and course provision should remember that a keen and sensitive awareness of the needs of all children may be as essential as an awareness of the needs of children from specific ethnic minorities if a sound and well balanced in-service educational provision for a multicultural society is to be developed.'

'Although there is a clear need for further specific courses of inservice education for multicultural situations both at the award-bearing and short course level, this provision should not be seen as an end in itself. These courses can be regarded as but one essential contribution to the fulfilment of a more pervasive need: to make the consideration of multicultural issues more widely available in the general provision of in-service courses for teachers. It is difficult to believe that any in-service course being offered at the present time could properly avoid some consideration of multicultural education. Obvious cases are courses in educational management, guidance and counselling and curriculum development. A multicultural dimension is an inescapable component of the fabric of contemporary educational provision. Indeed we would hope that such a dimension will come to pervade all courses and equally importantly, that all course tutors will have a proper sensitivity and awareness of the area.'

'Teachers in their classrooms have found themselves responsible for an increasing part of society's response. Their need for assistance has never been greater. Yet recent studies continue to demonstrate the dearth of detailed consideration of multicultural issues in most schemes of initial training. And since the flow of recruits to the teaching profession has slowed and, in some schools, has ceased altogether, the response becomes more and more the responsibility of the existing teaching force.'

3.12 The central message of 'Education for All' is that the education offered to all pupils should reflect both the diversity of British society and, beyond this, the interdependence of the world community today. It will be clear therefore that just as we see initial teacher training having a major role to play in offering all new teachers the skills and background knowledge needed to fulfil their professional responsibilities in a genuinely pluralist context, so we would see in-service training as having an equally important and complementary role to play in relation to those teachers already teaching in schools.

Permeation of in-service provision

We have argued for the permeation of all initial training courses with the principles underlying a genuinely pluralist approach to education; we also believe that all in-service courses, irrespective of level or subject matter, or the character of the area or institution in which they are provided, must reflect the multiplicity of cultures, faiths and languages in contemporary society. All in-service courses should be informed by the broad principles which we would wish to see underlying all initial training courses and which we set out in paragraph 2.13 above. As the Assistant Masters and Mistresses Association has observed (28):

'In the same way that we believe that multicultural perspectives need to inhere in the whole of the school curriculum, they must inform a very wide spectrum of INSET (in-service training), whatever its main purpose. Subject based, pastoral and management courses all need to take account of how their own particular aspects of the education service need to respond to the issues of multicultural living. This is an important way of seeing that (a multicultural) approach ... really does begin to underpin the whole of the school, and also to reach the ears of some teachers who would not choose to go on the more specifically multicultural courses, in the hope of awaking their awareness.'

Training of heads and senior staff

3.13 We should perhaps single out for particular emphasis here the courses to be offered by the National Development Centre for School Management Training at Bristol, since it is clear that the attitude and general level of awareness and understanding of heads and senior staff influences greatly a school's response to this area of development. As the Secretary of State himself observed (29), in announcing the setting up of the National Centre:

'The standards of our schools - academic, moral and cultural - are set by the heads and the senior staff within them. It is essential that they should be fully equipped for the difficult tasks that face them.'

Specialised in-service provision

3.14 There is also a range of in-service training provision which is concerned specifically with the educational needs of ethnic minority pupils and the general development of a broader approach to the curriculum.

Award-bearing courses

This provision takes a wide variety of forms, ranging from long award-bearing courses leading to higher degrees, options within in-service BEd or MEd degrees and advanced diplomas and certificates offered by universities, polytechnics and colleges, to locally organised short courses and workshops and various school-based activities. Each of these types of provision has a contribution to make in enhancing the knowledge and overall awareness of practising teachers to the implications and opportunities of teaching in a culturally diverse society. However we believe that the area of in-service provision with the greatest potential for influencing the largest number of teachers in the most immediate and practical sense is without doubt the wide range of school-based and school-focused activities which have developed in recent years and which we discuss in some detail later in this section (see paragraph 3.22 below). High level, award-bearing courses, especially at MEd level, which include options relating to 'multicultural education' can however we believe also be valuable in attracting senior post-holders from schools including heads and deputies and indeed from other teacher training institutions or from LEA advisory services, who, as we have already observed, can play such a major role in influencing their own institution's or organisation's policies. Such individuals can themselves then act as agents of change in bringing about a fundamental reappraisal of policies and practices in their own institutions in accordance with pluralist principles and thus accelerate the pace of the reorientation of educational provision and teacher training which we have advocated. Advanced diplomas and in-service BEd courses can be equally valuable for senior teachers and heads of departments. At present few institutions offer taught Master's degree courses or in-service BEd courses which incorporate specific major or minor options in multicultural issues. The issues covered by these options range from those relating specifically to the multiracial school - whether in the form of the particular linguistic needs of children for whom English is not a first language, or the approach which can be adopted to certain subject areas in a multiracial classroom situation - or more broadly to the way in which teaching in any school in this country can and must take account of the multiracial social context. We would therefore wish to see a general expansion of provision at this level in order to extend the capacity of the teacher training system to influence the senior, key figures within the education service in the manner which we have outlined here. We believe that there is also scope for the further development of Master's degree courses specifically concerned with the broader concept of 'Education for All' which we have advocated, rather than simply incorporating options in this field, and we would hope therefore that institutions will give consideration to developing such courses in response to this report.

Centres of specialism

3.15 There are already a few teacher training institutions, such as Bradford College and the University of London Institute of Education, which have developed particular expertise in the multicultural field in relation to the needs of certain ethnic minority groups and which offer a range of long and short in-service courses. Such centres of specialism will clearly continue to attract those practising teachers who wish to acquire particular skills related directly to the character of their own schools, and can offer advice and support to other institutions wishing to develop their provision in this field. Such institutions may also be able to foster curriculum development and support research initiatives in this field. We would hope to see other institutions developing similar expertise in relation to aspects of 'Education for All' in the future - for example, the findings of Professor Craft's research project on the capacity of institutions to offer provision relating specifically to ethnic minority community languages, summarised in Annex F to our Language Chapter, drew attention to a number of potential 'centres of growth' which we would hope to see develop their provision further.

Short courses

3.16 A range of specialist short courses has been developed mainly by LEAs and often in collaboration with teacher training institutions to meet the particular needs of teachers working in multiracial schools. It must be recognised that a course which may last for perhaps only one term part-time can only be regarded as of limited value in itself and should properly be seen as part of a continuing in-service training and curriculum development process. Nevertheless, where a practising teacher wishes to gain further knowledge or skills in a particular aspect of his work, such short courses can be of considerable value. We have already discussed in earlier chapters of this report the particular educational needs which some ethnic minority pupils may experience, and how we feel these needs should best be catered for. For example, we believe that all teachers in schools with substantial numbers of pupils for whom English is not a first language should recognise and accept their responsibility for supporting the linguistic development of these pupils rather than simply regarding this as the role of the language 'specialist'. Apart from such specific issues, there is also a need for teachers in multiracial schools to have a particular level of knowledge and understanding of the religious or cultural character of the community or communities which they serve in order to be able to respond sensitively and positively to any 'pastoral' needs which may arise and to fulfil their responsibilities in relation to home/school relationships. This would of course be true for any teacher in any school in the country, whether 'all-white' or multiracial, but where the cultural 'frame of reference' of a substantial part of a school's pupil population may be markedly different from that of all or most of the staff, it is clear that there may be a particularly pressing need for relevant inservice training of the teachers, and this need can often be met through short course provision. In view of the risks of such 'background' courses establishing or reinforcing negative stereotypes of ethnic minority communities, it is essential that great care and sensitivity is exercised in developing such provision. The majority of LEAs now have advisory committees with the specific task of coordinating and facilitating inservice provision and we hope that these bodies will be particularly responsive to the need to ensure a recognition of cultural diversity. Since in-service short courses, by definition, need to be related directly to a particular area or school, it is difficult to put forward a 'model'. Nevertheless there are three broad principles which we believe should inform provision of this type:

• every effort should be made to involve members of the different ethnic minority communities themselves to talk about their lifestyles, attitudes towards education and aspirations, to avoid the risks inherent in attempting to 'define other people's realities' for them;
• the emphasis should be primarily on the experiences of the communities in this country rather than in their countries of origin, since this is the context in which the ethnic minority youngsters now in school are being educated and will be living;
• whilst it is clearly necessary for teachers to gain an understanding of the cultural and religious beliefs and traditions of different communities, it should also be recognised that many British-born ethnic minority youngsters are now developing their own distinct 'identities' which may incorporate the central elements of their parents' lifestyles but with a rather different emphasis: it cannot be seen as the task of the school to 'enforce' a particular cultural identity on any child, but rather to help him or her evolve their own identity.

Racism awareness training

3.17 It is important to mention here the limited but increasing number of short in-service courses which have been organised by certain multiracial LEAs and educational organisations in the past few years concerned with what has generally been termed 'Racism Awareness'. Although the diverse activities which have been organised under this broad heading have varied widely, they have generally derived from the Racism Awareness programmes originally devised in the United States, particularly the programme devised by Judy Katz, whose handbook of 'Anti-Racism Training' - 'White Awareness' - was published in the USA in 1978. An example of the type of course which has been organised in this country was the Racism Awareness Workshop organised by the National Union of Teachers in March 1983, the aims of which were set out as follows:

'The workshop is designed for teachers who wish to develop an awareness of the operation of racism in society in general and in the education system in particular at an institutional and personal level. It will be specifically focused around 'white' attitudes and the professional responsibilities of white teachers in a multiracial, multicultural society. It is hoped that through an exploration of the processes involved in 'unlearning' racism, and exercises aimed at strengthening participants' antiracist understanding and techniques, teachers will be provided with information and skills which will help them to make an effective contribution to antiracist strategies in their own schools and colleges.'

'... a self-selected group of volunteers with a positive willingness to learn about racism awareness techniques.'

'All-white' dimension

3.18 It will be clear that the type of specific in-service provision which we have discussed is designed primarily to meet the needs of those practising teachers who are actually teaching in multiracial schools. Courses relating to issues such as 'teaching in a multilingual classroom', 'the pastoral needs of Muslim girls', or to the specific background of certain ethnic minority groups in particular parts of the country, can be seen to be of little relevance to the teacher working in an 'all-white' school in an area with little if any ethnic minority settlement. Nevertheless, as we have emphasised throughout this report, the issues raised by 'Education for All' are of equal validity and importance for teachers in such 'all-white' areas, in offering their pupils a full and balanced education, and in also seeking to counter the misleading and negative stereotypes which ethnic majority pupils may have of ethnic minority groups and which contribute to the overall climate of racism. We have already argued that all new teachers should, through their initial training, be brought to an awareness and understanding of the broader multiracial social context in which they will be teaching and of how to prepare their pupils for life in a pluralist society. It is equally necessary to develop this same degree of awareness and understanding amongst those teachers already in schools, including those in ''all-white' areas. As we have seen however, there is virtually no in-service provision currently available which seeks to cater for what is after all still a majority of the existing teaching force - Little and Willey's study reported almost no relevant in-service provision available to teachers in areas with few ethnic minority pupils, and Professor Eggleston and his team found this type of provision 'largely non-existent'. It could be suggested that this gap in provision could be filled by a major extension of existing in-service courses to LEAs and teacher training institutions in 'all-white' areas. This assumes however that the in-service needs of a teacher in an 'all-white' school are the same as those of a teacher in a multiracial school, and, as we have seen, there are in fact clear differences of emphasis and concern in these different contexts. We believe therefore that there is an urgent need to develop appropriate in-service courses across the range of provision, from options in high level, award-bearing courses to part-time, short courses, designed specifically to enable teachers from 'all-white' schools to incorporate a pluralist perspective in their work and to bring their pupils to a positive understanding and appreciation of the multiracial nature of society. Those teachers from 'all-white' schools with whom we have discussed the development of courses along these lines have generally expressed themselves willing and indeed anxious to broaden their horizons through such in-service training.

3.19 It is difficult to set out here what we would regard as the ideal content of such courses for teachers in 'all-white' areas since the opportunities for detailed study and the emphasis of a course will vary according to type and length. We would nevertheless envisage courses covering the kind of information which we have already indicated we would wish to see included in core studies at both initial and in-service level, which can broadly be summarised as follows:

• an informed awareness of the diversity of contemporary British society, including the basic 'facts and figures' about the processes of immigration to and emigration from this country over the last 150 years and the circumstances which have conditioned the experiences and aspirations of different ethnic minority groups;
• the theory and practice of racism at both institutional and individual level and how this operates, and can be challenged, both in society and in education;
• the changing perceptions of 'ethnic minority education' and our view of 'Education for All';
• the straightforward educational grounds for broadening the curriculum to incorporate multicultural and indeed global perspectives and wider questions of justice, equality and the aims of a genuinely pluralist society.

Financial support

3.20 All that we have said up to now has been intended to bring about an extension and development of in-service provision related to our view of 'Education for All'. It could be argued that such an expansion of provision is unnecessary and unjustified since one of the few findings to emerge clearly from the limited research available has been that a proportion of the in-service courses already offered in this field are undersubscribed and some have even been cancelled due to lack of support - at first sight hardly a basis on which to press for more such courses to be organised. However it must be recognised that the major factor in this situation, especially in recent years, is not we believe any lack of interest on the part of teachers, but rather the effects of financial constraints which have led many LEAs to reduce substantially the number of teachers whom they are prepared to release for in-service training because of the costs incurred in providing replacements for them. In order to have any chance of effectively enhancing the level of in-service training available to teachers in this field, it is clear that the expansion of course provision which we have advocated here must therefore be matched by appropriate financial support in order to enable teachers and LEAs to take full advantage of the training opportunities available. In March 1983, the DES announced (30) details of a scheme of direct grants for in-service teacher training under which direct financial assistance is offered by central government to local authorities when serving teachers are released for training on designated courses in any of four priority areas: management training for head teachers and senior staff; mathematics teaching following the report of the Cockcroft Committee (31); pre-vocational education in schools; and special educational needs in ordinary schools. (32) The express intention of this move was to bring about an expansion of inservice provision in these areas - as Circular 3/83 explained:

'When local authorities are considering the release of teachers for inservice training, a major difficulty can be the costs which would be incurred in providing replacements. It is the Secretary of State's intention under this scheme to secure an increase of in-service training in the ... priority areas. The difficulty referred to above would largely be overcome if, as he expects, the grants paid in respect of eligible teachers attending eligible courses are used towards the salary costs of providing replacements for them.' (33)

School based activities

3.21 Up to now we have confined our consideration of in-service training chiefly to the provision of taught courses of varying types and levels but nevertheless all 'external' to the individual school. In recent years however, in discussions of in-service training generally, increasing emphasis and attention has come to be devoted to the role of school-based or school-focused in-service support for teachers, and we ourselves believe that such activities have a crucial part to play in enhancing the knowledge and understanding of serving teachers. In considering the potential role of school-based activities, it is important to appreciate that there are two distinct, although clearly interrelated, purposes of inservice training: on the one hand, as a contribution to the professional development of the individual teacher often as a means of gaining promotion or career advancement, possibly at a new school or elsewhere in the education service, and, on the other hand, as an integral part of the enhancement and development of the policies and practices of a school as a whole. We believe that these two functions of in-service training are both important, however, from the point of view of bringing about the reorientation of the education process which we have advocated in this report, the latter is perhaps the more essential. Whilst we certainly wish to see teachers who have devoted time and effort to gaining additional qualifications being given appropriate recognition, if such teachers subsequently take up posts either at another school or elsewhere in the education service, the in-service training involved has in practice proved of little value to their original schools. There must therefore we believe be a central place in any scheme of in-service provision, for activities which take place on a school basis and which can thus involve a whole school staff working together to enhance and develop the teaching which they offer their pupils. As the James Report observed:

'In-service training should begin in the schools. It is here that learning and teaching take place, curricula and techniques are developed and needs and deficiencies revealed. Every school should regard the continued training of its teachers as an essential part of its task, for which all members of staff share responsibility.'

'It can be directed specifically to the needs of the school and its pupils, so that those who teach mathematics develop professionally as a result of working together to improve the work of the school. Above all, it can and should be a continuing process which is not limited to the length of a lecture, a discussion or a course.'

3.22 Many of those who gave evidence to us emphasised that they regarded school-based activities as the most important form of in-service provision and as likely to have the most immediate impact on the greatest number of teachers. School-based activities can be seen as the only effective means of influencing those teachers, who may have received their initial training the longest ago and may therefore be most able to benefit from updating of their knowledge and skills, but are the least likely to attend an out of school in-service course although they may be in positions of authority within schools. It is clear that for school-based activities to be effective, they must have the whole-hearted support of heads and senior staff, governors and of the LEA, since indirect costs may be involved through the purchase of materials or possibly the closure of the school for an in-service day or the organisation of an in-service weekend. Although we believe that the range of skill and expertise available from within a school's normal staff has generally been underestimated, it is also however necessary to avoid school-based activities becoming either too narrow and inward-looking or too complacent, if any meaningful appraisal of policies and practice is to take place. An outside catalyst to such activities may therefore be needed either in the form of an adviser or outsider 'expert' or possibly a teacher from another school, or through a member of the school staff attending an external in-service course and then returning to coordinate activities within the school and to pass on the particular knowledge and skills which he or she has gained. In this way structured in-service course provision and school-focused activities can be seen as complementary, and the influence and effectiveness of course provision can be extended and developed far beyond the number of teachers who are able to actually attend courses, which, even with the overall expansion of provision for which we have called, will always remain limited in relation to the overall size of the teaching force. The development of continuing school-based activities can also ensure that a school is able to take full advantage of the additional knowledge which a teacher may gain on a course rather than, as may be the case at present, the effectiveness of a course being diluted in the face of a disinterested or unresponsive school staff. As the HMI discussion paper 'Teacher Training and the Secondary School' observed

'Experience has shown that the stimulating effect of an in-service course on one or two individuals can be neutralised on their return by the inability of the school to respond to it and to take advantage of what they have learned.'

3.23 It is clear that school-based activities can be especially valuable in fostering the enhanced awareness of multicultural issues and in developing the pluralist perspective which we have advocated here. This was certainly the emphasis of much of the evidence which we received on teacher training - as one teacher training institution put it to us for example:

'... we would see school-based in-service courses as being a necessary and desirable part of any in-service programme. It is essential that all staff in a school are made aware of the need of multiracial education, and are offered immediate and sustained support in the acquisition of skills and the design of strategies appropriate to meeting these needs.'

'It is when a school has come to a decision as to what direction it should develop in, and analysed its training needs, that it can absorb and act upon the effects of that training. The school-focused model will be one of the means by which the institution responds to this self-evaluation. This approach is particularly well fitted to achieve objectives which require a radical change in thinking on the part of the staff. One example is the wider view of the curriculum ... Heads of department can be encouraged to give a lead in forming working groups of teachers from a number of subjects. These might begin by looking at ways in which one subject can provide teaching material for others and draw upon them in turn. They might then work towards identifying particular insights and skills that their subjects have a common interest in developing. Another example is the extension of teaching methods. There are obvious difficulties in persuading experienced teachers that they need to look critically at their own teaching methods. Little will be achieved if school policies to this end are conceived abstractly and handed down as precept. They will fail if they do not take account of the sensitivity of staff who see them as a questioning of their professional competence, or an encroachment upon their autonomy. A school-focused approach is certainly the best form of in-service training to open up teaching methods to critical scrutiny, but its basis should be inductive. Heads of departments need to cooperate to encourage teachers to look at the demands made upon a pupil in subjects other than their own. This will imply a greater readiness to observe and to be observed and to discuss openly the outcomes. A third example is the need for the teacher to continue to broaden his experience of pupil performance and keep his standards and expectations under critical review. In-service work in schools should include the opportunity for collective study of work produced by pupils in response to a variety of demands.

Teachers need to be able to look at performance across a wide ability range and in subjects other than their own, and to discuss implications with colleagues. This amounts to a continuous process of self-evaluation on the part of schools, where larger and more general objectives are evolved from evidence and professional judgements accumulated by teachers at individual and group level.'

In-service policy statements and their implementation

3.24 If the changes we are seeking within schools are to be brought about efficiently, we consider it important that each school should develop, in consultation with the LEA and its advisors, a scheme for the in-service education of its teachers, ranging from award bearing courses to short courses and school based activities as appropriate. Such a scheme could form part of the policy statement on 'Education for All' which we consider LEAs should require of each school. To this end, we also consider it necessary that each LEA, in its own policy statement, should commit itself to developing an overall strategy of in-service training for its area which would cover not only the work of teachers but all other members of the education service, for example librarians, careers advisors and educational psychologists. For the implementation of such a policy appropriate funds will need to be allocated to provide not only for the secondment and supply cover for teachers together with related expenses but also for the necessary resources and support services. In each LEA there needs to be provision at teachers' centres of books, materials and facilities together with specialist advice which teachers and LEA personnel can call on as required. In the interests of the economical use of resources it is clear that adequate provision must also be made for the proper evaluation in relation to local needs of the full range of these in-service activities.

Training the trainers

3.25 It is clear that the task which we have envisaged for teacher education at both initial and in-service level makes great demands on the teacher training institutions and on individual teacher trainers. It may well be necessary therefore for some teacher trainers to become involved in a process of reappraisal, reorientation and even retraining themselves. As the HMI discussion paper on initial training observed:

'The most carefully planned course of training is still only as good as the people who teach it and the way it is taught ... The professional element in the student's preparation should be taught by people who are successful and experienced members of the teaching profession, up to date in their knowledge of schools and of society, and able to help their students develop an informed empirical approach to their teaching tasks.'

'Like so many Schools of Education, new recruitment is non-existent. We are a fast ageing staff: most of us have very little experience of recent teaching in inner city (or outer city!) schools.'

'The expertise of practising teachers is a valuable resource and colleges should be encouraged in this practice, not only for options and in-service courses, but as a contribution to the 'compulsory' element of the initial course, whether BEd or PGCE ... A more flexible and imaginative use of the secondment of teachers to colleges and college staff to schools, utilising the experience of serving teachers in the training of students, would be beneficial to all concerned.'

'It has been strongly argued that the balance of influence and authority in initial training should be shifted towards the schools. leading to a partnership very much more equal than at present. Certainly there is room for more instances of teachers working in colleges with students,for example in subject method courses, and of lecturers regarding a regular school teaching assignment as an essential part of their work. It has been remarked of college and school that "the semi-permeable membrane between them should become wholly permeable".'

II The employment of ethnic minority teachers

1. Background

1.1 There has long been concern amongst both ethnic minority communities and educationists that, as the Assistant Masters and Mistresses Association have put it:

'Teachers from ethnic minorities are regrettably and evidently a minority in themselves.'

'... the majority of our witnesses, not least those from local education authorities, that there should be more.'

'There is ... a desperate urgency to increase as dramatically and quickly as possible the number of black teachers in Britain's schools.'

Absence of statistical data

1.2 It is clear that ethnic minority groups (by which we would mean the whole range of groups with whom we have been concerned in this report and not only the Asians and West Indians on whom most of the attention in this respect has tended to focus) are disproportionately under-represented in the teaching profession - indeed the DES itself has long accepted this as a legitimate cause for concern. There is however no firm statistical basis for any discussion of the number of teachers of ethnic minority origin and such estimates as have been made in recent years have tended to be both limited in scope and definitionally imprecise - for example, the Commission for Racial Equality (CRE), in its evidence to us, was able only to estimate that:

'... there may be 800 or more teachers of West Indian origins and a rather larger number of Asian origins, but no precise figures are available.'

'... the Department of Education and Science should compile and monitor relevant statistics relating to those students training to be teachers, and teachers in grant-aided establishments, who are of West Indian origin.'

'The DES should ask all teacher training institutions to collect statistics on the ethnic origin of all students training to be teachers including students seeking to enter teaching through special access courses.'

'The DES should record and publish statistics on the ethnic origin of all teachers in employment ...'

1.3 We firmly believe that the collection of the statistical data which we have previously advocated is an essential element in seeking to tackle the important and often controversial issues of the admission of ethnic minority students to teacher training courses and also the recruitment and career advancement of ethnic minority teachers, since such reliable and up to date data would serve to quantify accurately for the first time the extent to which ethnic minorities are under-represented in teaching. We therefore begin this discussion of the role and recruitment of ethnic minority teachers by strongly reiterating our interim report recommendations concerning the collection of statistical data in this field.

2. The case for more ethnic minority teachers

2.1 Irrespective of the absence of detailed statistical data, it is clear that there are disproportionately low numbers of teachers of ethnic minority origin in our schools. We regard this under-representation of ethnic minority teachers as a matter of great concern which merits urgent attention and positive action. As the authors of the second NFER Review of Research have argued:

'If schools are to reflect a multi-ethnic society then not only should their curricula be consciously multicultural but their staff should be conspicuously multiracial too.'

2.2 The specific educational justifications for efforts to be made to increase the number of ethnic minority teachers are many and varied and we discuss these further below. Over and above the educational grounds for action, there is the straightforward question of seeking to bring about true equality of opportunity for members of all groups throughout the employment market including the teaching profession. A number of individual teachers of ethnic minority origin as well as the various ethnic minority teachers organisations who gave evidence to us expressed the belief that many qualified ethnic minority teachers have faced racial discrimination in seeking employment and subsequently in gaining career advancement. It has been suggested in particular to us that ethnic minority applicants are less likely than their colleagues from the majority community to obtain permanent posts and are often only able to obtain work as 'supply' teachers and that, even once they have joined a school, they have particular difficulty in achieving professional recognition in the eyes of their colleagues and are unlikely to be promoted beyond perhaps Scale 1 or 2 posts even after some years service. Clearly the absence of firm statistical data makes it difficult to establish the extent of such discrimination but, as the CRE observed in their evidence to us:

'What is most apparent ... is the widespread sense of frustration and bitterness among ethnic minority teachers about what they see as their subordinate and disadvantaged position in the teaching profession.'

'The mere fact that allegations of discrimination (direct or indirect) are made by members of the teaching profession necessitates unequivocal commitments to equality of opportunity from educational employers; if discrimination in the employment of teachers does not exist it must nonetheless be shown not to exist.'

Educational arguments for more ethnic minority teachers

2.4 Turning to the educational arguments for increasing the number of ethnic minority teachers, in its conclusions to a survey published in 1977 (37) the then Community Relations Commission put forward the following four reasons for employing more ethnic minority teachers:

'a. It is desirable for people staffing an educational service to be a natural reflection of the make-up of the population.

b. People from ethnic minority groups should have opportunities to become professional workers if they have the desire and the ability to do so.

c. Ethnic minority teachers act as a source of cultural expertise and skill for other staff and children.

d. Ethnic minority parents and children who are unable or unwilling to trust "authority" to understand their needs are reassured by the presence of staff from their own ethnic group.'

All these reasons appear to us to remain valid to the present day. As we have already stressed elsewhere in this report, it is undoubtedly true that some ethnic minority teachers can play a particularly valuable 'pastoral' role within a multiracial school both directly, through supporting and encouraging pupils and parents drawn from the same ethnic minority group, and indirectly, through advising their colleagues on the background and concerns of certain ethnic minority groups and ensuring that the practices and procedures of the school as a whole take account of the needs of the communities which they serve. As we have emphasised however, it should never be assumed that each and every teacher of ethnic minority origin will be able or willing to accept this role. As we have stressed in Chapter Seven, the presence of bilingual or multilingual teachers of ethnic minority origin, who share a common 'community language' with pupils for whom English is not a first language, can also greatly enhance the capacity of a multiracial school to respond positively to the linguistic diversity of its pupil population, and can be particularly valuable in a 'pastoral' context in relation to developing the school's links with parents and the wider community. It has also been strongly emphasised to us, especially by representatives of the West Indian community, that ethnic minority teachers can serve as valuable 'role models' for pupils from the same ethnic background, and can thus have a direct effect on the motivation and even the achievement of these pupils. Such an influence can be particularly powerful where the teacher concerned has been born in this country, like the great majority of ethnic minority pupils, and is thus perceived by them as sharing a common background and as having faced and overcome any educational 'hurdles' and succeeded within the system. Against this positive attitude is the view expressed to us by a number of ethnic minority pupils that they felt they had little in common with ethnic minority teachers who had been born and trained overseas and who therefore found it difficult to identify with the problems of identity experienced by British-born ethnic minority youngsters and who tended to be unduly influenced by a rather narrow and stereotyped view of their place in this society. In relation to the multiracial school context, it is also worth noting that on many of our own visits we were struck by the inherent incongruity of 'all-white' teaching staffs, often living well away from the catchment areas of their schools, seeking to meet the needs and respond to the concerns of a multiracial pupil population.

Potential contribution to an 'all-white' school

2.5 This should not be interpreted as suggesting that we see a role for teachers of ethnic minority origin only where there are ethnic minority pupils. This is far too limited a perception of their potential role and of the contribution which they can make to the education process. We believe that an ethnic minority teacher can be a valuable asset to any school in the country - whether multiracial or 'all-white'. Ethnic minority teachers may be 'role models' in all-white schools as well as in multiracial schools, in the sense in which their presence may serve to counter and overcome any negative stereotypes in the minds of pupils, parents or teachers from the majority community about ethnic minorities and their place in our society. Where such teachers are able to bring with them a degree of knowledge and personal experience of other cultures, religions and languages this can also be particularly valuable in enriching the 'resources' available in an 'all-white' school and in assisting the staff in perceiving how the school's curriculum can be broadened along genuinely pluralist lines. As the Assistant Masters and Mistresses Association have explained in their booklet 'Our Multicultural Society':

'... it could be argued that where a school, because of its monocultural population, has been slow to realise the need to take account of the multicultural nature of society outside the school, then the appointment to it of one or more reachers from ethnic minority groups may well be a useful catalyst. We are nor arguing that teachers from minority groups are in any sense automatically experts in, or even enthusiasts for, the sort of multicultural approach that we advocate. Individuals may or may not be. What we do suggest is that the arrival of such a teacher in a previously monocultural school may cause white colleagues (and pupils) to ask some questions for the first time.'

Recruitment

2.6 We find ourselves in principle opposed to any suggestion of a 'quota' system for increasing the number of ethnic minority teachers, which would in any sense bypass or override the desire of LEAs and schools to employ first and foremost the best candidate for a particular job in terms of expertise, experience and ability, since clearly this would run counter to the educational interests of all pupils. We do not wish to see any diminution of standards. We believe however that far more consideration should be given, in making appointments, to the extent to which a particular ethnic, cultural, linguistic or religious background is an additional and desirable feature for a job in any school - whether multiracial or 'all-white'. Much of a teacher's influence on pupils is of course indirect rather than direct - through the contribution which he or she makes to the ethos of the school and to the 'hidden' curriculum. In any school an ethnic minority teacher may be able to make a particular contribution to the development of policies designed to combat and counter the influence of racism, at both institutional and individual level, by drawing on his or her own personal experience of its effects. Just as we have argued throughout this report for a pluralist approach to be adopted in all schools, an education which seeks to prepare all pupils for life in a pluralist society can surely best be provided by a teaching force which is itself pluralist in character.

3. Sources of ethnic minority teachers

3.1 Having established that it is both desirable and indeed essential to increase the number of ethnic minority teachers in our schools, we now need to consider the question of where such teachers are to be found, since the argument often put forward by LEAs and schools to explain the limited number of such teachers is that ethnic minority candidates simply do not apply for posts and therefore cannot be recruited. Whilst we feel that a major factor in this situation may well be the reluctance of ethnic minority teachers to apply for posts which they feel they will not obtain because of the influence of racism in the appointments procedure which, as we have indicated above, can best be overcome by positive statements by LEAs of policies of equality of opportunity in the employment field, it is also clear that steps need to be taken to encourage more members of ethnic minority groups to enter teaching in the first place. In our view there are three main potential sources for recruiting more teachers of ethnic minority origin:

• Ethnic minority teachers who have qualified and taught overseas;
• Mature individuals from the ethnic minorities who do not hold the appropriate academic qualifications for entry to teacher training but who are keen to become teachers; and
• Ethnic minority youngsters, currently in school, who have or expect to obtain the appropriate qualifications.

Teachers with overseas qualifications

3.2 There are undoubtedly, within the various ethnic minority communities, a number of first generation immigrants who trained, qualified and taught in their respective countries of origin but who have either not sought to or have been unable to resume their teaching careers in this country. At first sight such individuals would appear to offer a valuable source of experienced ethnic minority teachers, although, as we have observed above, it must be recognised that some ethnic minority teachers from overseas may find it particularly difficult to relate to British-born ethnic minority youngsters. It must be borne in mind however that qualifications obtained overseas do not necessarily equate with similar qualifications in this country. The procedure followed by the DES in determining whether to grant qualified teacher status to individuals with overseas qualifications was described to us as follows:

'i. The regulations governing recognition as a qualified teacher require a course of training completed elsewhere to be comparable to an approved course of initial teacher training undertaken in England and Wales.

ii. Applications are assessed individually. Crucial factors are the age of entry, length, content and standard of the overseas course for comparison with approved courses of initial teacher training in England and Wales.

iii. Overseas graduates with degrees obtained before 1974 (when the teacher training requirement came fully into effect) may be acceptable without professional teacher training provided that the standard of the degree equates to that of a first degree of a British university. Untrained graduates are limited to teaching in secondary schools only if the degrees were obtained after 1969.

iv. In line with the policy of improving minimum standards in the teaching profession, evidence of competence in the English language and mathematics will be required from those who are granted qualified teacher status after August 1984. The standard will be GCE O Levels or other equivalent qualifications.'

3.3 The 1977 Select Committee Report on the West Indian Community recommended that:

'... the Department of Education and Science should forthwith consider ways and means of increasing the number of teachers of West Indian origin in maintained schools.'

In 1978, in response to this specific recommendation and to the widespread concern about the shortage of teachers from the whole range of ethnic minority groups, the DES invited seven LEAs to establish what have become known as 'special access' courses designed to prepare mature students, particularly but not exclusively from ethnic minority communities, who lacked the normal academic qualifications, to enter training for teaching and other 'caring' professions. Six of the LEAs originally approached have felt able to establish access courses and one additional Authority has also since established them. The DES-sponsored evaluation from 1979 to 1983 of these has indicated encouraging results. (39) We understand from the Project Director, Mr Ken Millins (who was, of course, also previously a member of this Committee) that during the sessions 1979/1980 - 1983/1984 a total of some 1800 students had been admitted to access courses, of whom 51 per cent were of West Indian origin and 5 per cent of Asian origin. A total of 33 institutions are offering access courses, including 17 Colleges of Further Education, 15 Higher Education institutions and 1 Combined Community College, some on a full-time basis and some part-time, with the major emphases being on entry to teacher education or social work and studying the Humanities or Social Sciences. The success rate for all students on access courses preparatory to BEd studies during the sessions 1979/1980 - 1982/1983 was 67.3 per cent, and for all ethnic minority students on these courses during the same period 69.7 per cent. Attached as Annex J is a table taken from the Evaluation Report giving further details of the admission of ethnic minority students from access courses to BEd studies. (It is of course not possible to know how many other former access students may also ultimately enter teacher training through the PGCE route). From these data it can be seen that access courses have enabled a small but nevertheless significant number of ethnic minority students, without the usual entry qualifications, to enter Higher Education and to fulfil a desire to train as teachers. We regard access courses as making an important and valuable contribution not only to offering a 'second chance' for access to Higher Education to ethnic minority students and others who may have previously underachieved and failed to realise their full potential, but also in contributing ultimately to the number of teachers of ethnic minority origin in our schools. We would therefore hope to see an overall expansion of access-style provision to the whole range of Higher Education in the future, not only linked to particular courses or to certain professions but also more generally. We believe that in order to evaluate fully the effectiveness of these courses in the longer term it is essential to monitor closely the continuing progress and performance of those students currently in Higher Education and who may subsequently enter teaching. In April 1984, the Nuffield Foundation agreed to fund a two year follow-up study of the performance of former access students in higher education. We would like to see the DES commission a further project to examine the experience of these students in actually obtaining teaching posts and in fulfilling their responsibilities in schools.

3.4 It is worth mentioning here that we were concerned to learn that some West Indian students who had entered BEd courses through access courses felt that they were regarded by their fellow students and, even more worryingly, by some of their lecturers as 'second-class students' who had entered training through the 'backdoor'. We strongly deplore such attitudes and urge all those institutions currently training students who have participated in access courses to take steps to ensure that such misguided and negative attitudes, when and if they are found, are firmly countered. A major factor in limiting the development and effectiveness of access courses has been financial constraints since students on these courses are not entitled to mandatory awards and are therefore reliant on discretionary awards. At present only two of the LEAs involved provide major discretionary awards for such students. A number of access courses are, as we have mentioned, being provided on a part-time basis in an effort to minimise this problem, but, as the DES acknowledged in its memorandum on access courses to the Home Affairs Committee for its 198 I report:

'... even in such cases fees and travelling expenses may deter some students.'

'Ways must ... be found to provide mandatory awards for students on these (access) courses.'

Attitudes of ethnic minority youngsters

3.5 The third, and in our view the most important potential source of ethnic minority teachers in the future are the pupils of ethnic minority origin currently in school who have, or expect to gain, the qualifications needed to go on to Higher Education. Our own discussions with youngsters from a wide range of ethnic minority backgrounds have however revealed that comparatively few of them actually aspire to a career in teaching. The explanations most frequently put forward for this reluctance to consider a future in teaching were that:

• they had experienced racism and negative stereotyping of ethnic minority groups while at school and had no desire therefore to rejoin such an institution;
• they were disenchanted by the somewhat limited role which they felt many ethnic minority teachers were asked to play in the system - as E2L or 'mother tongue' teachers or simply as supervisors of ethnic minority pupils - and the restricted career opportunities this presented; and
• they did not regard teaching as offering good career prospects in the current economic situation, especially since they felt their own chances in the jobs market would be hindered by the influence of racism.

Relationship with underachievement

3.6 The major obstacle to seeking ethnic minority teachers, especially of West Indian origin, from amongst the ethnic minority children now in school is however above all that as long as such pupils continue to underachieve in academic terms, as is the case at present, they will lack the necessary qualifications for entry to teacher training (other than of course through access courses). As Dr Willey has quite rightly observed therefore in his draft report on teacher training:

'The main continuing need is to ensure that mainstream education provides minority ethnic group pupils with the qualifications and motivation to enter teacher training through the normal channels.'

III Main conclusions and recommendations

Teacher education

We believe that all initial teacher training courses, both PGCE and BEd, should be permeated with the principles underlying a genuinely pluralist approach to education (Paragraph 2.12);

Consideration should be given to pluralist issues within the central and compulsory 'core' of all initial training courses, both PGCE and BEd (Paragraph 2.16);

Specialist optional courses relating to pluralist issues should continue to be offered within both PGCE and BEd courses (Paragraph 2.21);

Efforts should be made by all teacher training institutions to ensure that all their students, whether on BEd or PGCE courses, have an opportunity of gaining some practical experience in a multiracial school (Paragraph 2.22);

We urge the Secretary of State to ask the new Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education to pay particular attention to the need to incorporate a pluralist perspective in all initial teacher training courses in their forthcoming review of provision (Paragraph 2.24);

The CNAA and universities responsible for initial teacher training should continue to support and encourage the development of a pluralist perspective throughout teacher education (Paragraph 2.26);

We believe that there is an urgent need for a major expansion in provision for induction training. All induction training in multiracial areas should incorporate the background information and skills needed to respond positively and sensitivity [sensitively?] to the particular educational needs which ethnic minority pupils may have and to utilise the opportunities offered by a multiracial classroom (Paragraph 3.3 and 3.5);

All in-service courses should reflect the multiplicity of cultures, faiths and languages in present day society. All providers of in-service training should ensure that the courses they offer have this pluralist perspective and embody the essential principals of 'Education for All' (Paragraph 3.12);

The courses offered by the National Development Centre for School Management, and by other institutions training heads and senior staff, should incorporate a pluralist perspective (Paragraph 3.13);

The coverage of 'multicultural' issues within high level, award-bearing courses should be expanded, in order to extend the capacity of the teacher training system to encourage the senior, key figures within the education service to an understanding of the implications, opportunities and responsibilities of teaching in a culturally diverse society so that they would be in a position to act as 'agents of change' within their own organisations and institutions (Paragraph 3.14);

We recommend the development of a number of teacher training institutions as 'centres of specialism' for work concerned with the needs of ethnic minority pupils and the implications of cultural diversity for 'all-white' schools (paragraphs 3.15 and 3.19);

Short course provision relating to the particular educational needs which may arise in multiracial schools should be expanded (Paragraph 3.16);

We recommend that the DES should fund an independent evaluation of the content and effectiveness of the various Racism Awareness Training programmes which are currently available (paragraph 3.17);

The DES should establish a series of 'pilot projects', involving teacher training institutions and LEAs and schools in 'all-white' areas, designed to develop and disseminate 'good practice' across the range of provision from high level, award-bearing courses to part-time, short courses, intended specifically to enable teachers in 'all-white' schools to incorporate a pluralist perspective in their work and to bring their pupils to a positive understanding and appreciation of the multiracial nature of society (paragraph 3.18);

We recommend that the In-Service Teacher Training Grants Scheme should be extended to allow for grants to be available to authorities in respect of the release of serving school teachers for training on courses relating to aspects of 'Education for All' (paragraph 3.20);

Particular attention should be given to the development of school-based in-service support for teachers in developing an enhanced awareness of the implications of cultural diversity for their work (Paragraph 3.23);

Efforts should be made to develop and extend the use of 'distance learning' techniques in relation to in-service teacher training, especially in 'all-white' areas. The broadcasting authorities and the Open University can play a particularly important role in this regard (Paragraph 3.23);

The DES should consider initiating the development of a centrally-funded scheme to facilitate teacher exchanges, possibly organised though the Central Bureau for Educational Visits and Exchanges, within this country, especially between multiracial schools and 'all-white' schools, to foster greater understanding and appreciation of the various dimensions of our multiracial society (Paragraph 3.23);

We recommend that each school should develop, in consultation with the LEA and its advisors, a scheme for the in-service education of its teachers. Such a scheme could form part of the policy statement on 'Education for All' which we consider LEAs should require of each school. (Paragraph 3.24);

Efforts should be made to develop closer links between schools and teacher training institutions, for example through the secondment of practising teachers to assist teacher trainers in their work, in order to ensure that the training offered takes full account of the realities of the present-day classroom situation, including teaching in a multiracial context (paragraph 3.25);

HM Inspectorate should issue guidance on provision for 'training the trainers' in relation to the demands of today's multiracial society, drawing on the findings of the DES evaluation of the current initiative organised under the auspices of the University of Nottingham in this field (Paragraph 3.25);

The employment of ethnic minority teachers

We reiterate our interim report recommendations that:

The DES should ask all teacher training institutions to collect statistics on the ethnic origin of all students training to be teachers including students seeking to enter teaching through special access courses.

The DES should record and publish statistics on the ethnic origin of all teachers in employment.'

We regard the under-representation of ethnic minorities in the teaching profession as a matter of great concern which calls for urgent attention. We believe that ethnic minority teachers (and would-be teachers) have been and are still subject to racial prejudice and discrimination, both in gaining employment and in advancing their careers. While we do not support positive discrimination e.g. quotas and do not wish to see any diminution of standards, we urge both the CRE and those involved within LEAs and the schools in making appointments, to devote far greater efforts to identifying and overcoming racist obstacles to the employment and advancement of ethnic minority teachers. (Paragraphs 2.1, 2.3, 2.6);

We welcome the efforts made by some LEAs to establish themselves as 'equal opportunity employers' and we urge all LEAs to follow this lead and adopt similar 'equal opportunities' policies (Paragraph 2.3);

We believe that an ethnic minority teacher can be a valuable asset to any school in the country - whether multiracial or 'all-white'. In a multiracial context, some ethnic minority teachers can play a particularly valuable 'pastoral' role through supporting and encouraging pupils and parents drawn from the same ethnic minority group, and through advising their colleagues on the background and concerns of certain ethnic minority groups and ensuring that the practices and procedures of the school as a whole take account of the needs of the communities which they serve. The presence of bilingual or multilingual teachers of ethnic minority origin, who share a common 'community language' with pupils for whom English is not a first language, can also greatly enhance the capacity of a multiracial school to respond positively to the linguistic diversity of its pupil population. Ethnic minority teachers can serve as valuable 'role models' for pupils from the same ethnic background. Ethnic minority teachers may also be 'role models' in 'all-white' schools in the sense in which their presence may serve to counter and overcome any negative stereotypes in the minds of pupils, parents or teachers from the majority community about ethnic minorities and their place in our society. Where such teachers are able to bring with them a degree of knowledge and personal experience of other cultures, religions and languages this can also be particularly valuable in enriching the 'resources' available to the school (paragraphs 2.4 and 2.5);

Ethnic minority teachers should never by portrayed simply as token figures within a school with just a 'curiosity' value or able only to undertake certain specific tasks, but should be regarded as an integral part of the school's staff, on equal terms with their colleagues from the majority community in participation in the development of policies and in the overall decision-making process (Paragraph 2.5);

We recommend that the DES should clarify the arrangements for granting qualified teacher status to members of ethnic minority communities who possess overseas qualifications, with a view to encouraging them to enter the teaching profession, as long as this involves no diminution of standards (Paragraph 3.2);

Access courses make an important and valuable contribution not only to offering a 'second chance' for access to Higher Education to ethnic minority students and others but also by contributing to the number of teachers of ethnic minority origin in our schools. We would therefore hope to see an overall expansion of access-style provision to the whole range of Higher Education in the future (Paragraph 3.3);

We recommend the DES commission a research project to examine the experience of former access students in obtaining teaching posts and in fulfilling their responsibilities in schools (Paragraph 3.3);

We remain firmly convinced that in order for access courses to cater fully for the needs of all those mature students from both ethnic minority groups and the ethnic majority community, who could benefit from them, these courses must come within the scope of mandatory awards. We therefore reiterate our interim report recommendation that:

The DES should find ways in which mandatory awards can be given to students on special access courses.

In our view the most important potential source of ethnic minority teachers in the future is the ethnic minority pupils currently in school. Careers teachers and careers officers, with the strong support of DES and HMI, should encourage ethnic minority youngsters to consider the possibility of entering teaching (paragraph 3.5).

References

(1) 'Racial Disadvantage'. Fifth Report of the Home Affairs Committee. HC 424-1. HMSO. July 1981.

(2) DES Statistical Bulletin 14/83. 'Teachers in service and teacher vacancies 1982-1983'. September 1983.

(3) 'Teaching Quality'. Cmnd 8836. HMSO. March 1983.

(4) Quoted in 'The Education of Immigrants'. Education Survey 13. HMSO. 1971.

(5) 'Organisation in Multiracial Schools'. Townsend and Brittan. NFER. 1972.

(6) Extract from a statement issued by the NCCI after a seminar held in January 1967.

(7) 'The Problems of Coloured School-leavers'. Report from the Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration. HMSO 413-1. July 1969.

(8) 'The Education of Immigrants'. Education Survey 13. HMSO 1971.

(9) Report of the Committee on 'Teacher Education and Training'. HMSO. 1972.

(10) 'Education'. Report of the Select Committee on Race Relations and Immigration. HMSO 405-1. July 1973.

(11) 'Teacher Education for a Multicultural Society'. CRC/ATCDE. June 1974.

(12) 'Developments in the BEd Degree Course - A Study based in 15 Institutions'. HMI Matters for Discussion No. 8. 1979.

(13) 'Multicultural Teacher Education in the United Kingdom: a Survey of Courses and other Provisions in British Institutions of Higher Education'. Cherrington and Giles. CRE. 1979. Unpublished.

(14) Appendix 20. 'Racial Disadvantage'. Home Affairs Committee Report. HC 424 - IV. HMSO. July 1981.

(15) 'The New Teacher in School'. HMI Matters for Discussion No. 15. HMSO. 1982.

(16) Memorandum on Compliance with Directive 77/486/EC on the Education of the Children of Migrant Workers. DES. March 1983.

(17) 'Multicultural Britain: The Preparation of Teachers'. Dr R Willey. CRE Advisory Group on Teacher Education. Forthcoming.

(18) 'Teaching in Schools: The Content of Initial Training'. AN HMI discussion paper. January 1983.

(19) DES Circular No 3/84. 13 April 1984.

(20) 'Education: A Framework for Expansion'. Cmnd 5174. HMSO. 1972.

(21) Detailed in DES Statistical Bulletin 9/80 'Induction and In-service Training of Teachers serving in maintained schools and Further Education establishments in England and Wales: 1979 Survey'. August 1980.

(22) 'Teacher Training and the Secondary School'. HMI. 1981.

(23) 'Immigrant Pupils in England. The LEA Response'. HER Townsend. NFER. 1971.

(24) 'Colour and Citizenship - A Report on British Race Relations'. EJB Rose et. al. 1969.

(25) 'Teaching in a Multicultural Society: The Task for Teacher Education'. The Falmer Press. 1981.

(26) 'Studies in the Multi-ethnic Curriculum'. Little and Willey. Schools Council. 1981.

(27) 'In-Service Teacher Education in a Multiracial Society'. Eggleston, Dunn and Purewal. 1981.

(28) 'Our Multicultural Society: The Educational Response'. AMMA. 1983.

(29) DES Press Notice 283/82. 6 December 1982.

(30) DES Circular 3/83 'The In-Service Teacher Training Grants Scheme'. 31 March 1983.

(31) 'Mathematics Counts'. Report of the Committee of Inquiry into the Teaching of Mathematics in Schools. HMSO. 1982.

(32) The DES subsequently added four new priority areas for inclusion in the scope of the scheme: science education; a special programme of support relating to the introduction of the General Certificate of Secondary Education; craft, design and technology teaching in schools; staff development in further education, and the updating of staff on work-related courses.

(33) The Scheme relates to teachers who are currently in full-time, permanent employment at maintained ordinary or special schools, and who have been so employed for an aggregate period of at least five years. The eligible courses should not involve attendances for longer than a period of 12 months' duration and should involve at least 20 days' attendance on what would normally be working days for the teachers concerned. Circular 4/84 included provisional estimates of the grants allocated to each LEA calculated on the basis of its compulsory school age population. The grants will cover, on average, 90 per cent of the salary costs of teachers released for in-service training. The remaining 10 per cent will be met by local education authorities. The government has issued details of those courses considered eligible for grant aid - Teacher Training Circular Letter 2/84 - although attendance at other courses relating to the priority areas may exceptionally be considered eligible.

(34) 'The West Indian Community'. HC 1801. 1977.

(35) 'The West Indian Community'. Home Office. Cmnd 7186. 1978.

(36) Section 71 of the Race Relations Act, 1976 states that:

'Without prejudice to their obligation to comply with any other provision of this Act, it shall be the duty of every local authority to make appropriate arrangements with a view to securing that their various functions are carried out with due regard to the need:

a. to eliminate unlawful racial discrimination; and

b. to promote equality of opportunity and good relations. between persons of different racial groups ...'

(39) 'Access Studies to Higher Education. September 1979 - December 1983'. A Report to the DES by Mr PKC Millins. January 1984.