Swann (1985)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Membership, Contents, Introduction

Part I: Setting the scene
Chapter 1 The nature of society
Chapter 2 Racism: theory and practice
Chapter 3 Achievement and underachievement
Chapter 3 continued

Part II: Education for all
Chapter 4 Ethnic minorities and education: historical perspective
Chapter 5 Multicultural education: further studies
Chapter 5 continued
Chapter 6 'Education for all': a new approach

Part III: Major areas of concern
Chapter 7 Language and language education
Chapter 8 Religion and the role of the school
Chapter 9 Teacher education; employment of ethnic minority teachers
Chapter 9 continued

Part IV: 'Other' ethnic minority groups
Introduction
Chapter 10 Chinese children
Chapter 11 Cypriot children
Chapter 12 Italian children
Chapter 13 Ukranian children
Chapter 14 Vietnamese children
Chapter 15 'Liverpool Blacks'
Chapter 16 Travellers' children
Reflections and conclusions

Part V:
Main conclusions and recommendations

Appendices

Report of the Committee of Enquiry into the Education of Children from Ethnic Minority Groups

Chairman: Lord Swann

Cmnd. 9453

London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office 1985
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.

Chapter 8 Religion and the role of the school: religious education and the 'separate' schools debate
[pages 465 - 539]

I. Religious education

1. Introduction

Religious diversity

1.1 The wide range of religious beliefs which now form part of the overall diversity of religious experience in Britain today is one of the most vivid manifestations of the diversity of our society. Some forty years ago, Christians and Jews were the two main religious communities in this country, together with people without any definite religious belief, some of them nominally Christian, some professedly atheist, and only a few individuals of other faiths. Today there are significant numbers of Muslims, Hindus, Sikhs and members of other faith communities living in many areas. Religious groupings of course cross ethnic divisions, with many West Indian immigrants and their descendants being Christians including Anglicans, Roman Catholics, Methodists, and members of Pentecostal churches and other denominations - and the Asian community also including Christians as well as adherents of the major Eastern faiths. Of the European minorities, discussed later in this report, the Italians for example are Roman Catholic, the Greek Cypriots Greek Orthodox and the Turkish Cypriots Muslim. It is important to recognise that the faiths of these minority communities are in no sense 'minority' religions, but are major faiths which have often played a leading role in shaping world history. One cannot, for example, fully understand the contemporary world without some knowledge of the influence of Islam as one writer has put it (1):

'The Moslem brush has painted such large tracts of time and space during the last fourteen hundred years that the historical panorama which did not feature them could be nothing but a wild and grotesque distortion of reality.'

1.2 We have already emphasised that one of the major aims of education should, in our view, be to broaden the horizons of all pupils to a greater understanding and appreciation of the diversity of value systems and lifestyles which are now present in our society whilst also enabling and assisting ethnic minority communities to maintain what they regard as the essential elements of their cultural identities. It is clear from the evidence we have received that for many ethnic minority communities, especially those from the various faiths within the Asian community, respect and recognition for their religious beliefs is seen as one of the, and, in some cases, the central factor in maintaining their community's strength and cohesiveness. This emphasis is perhaps hardly surprising since, as the Catholic Commission for Racial Justice has observed (2):

'Religions and culture are closely interwoven and often religion is the very "soul" of culture.'

Religious prejudice and racism

1.3 It is also important to recall that, as we pointed out in Chapter Two, the origins of racism lie to a considerable extent in regarding groups of people as 'strange' and thus 'inferior'. On this basis religious groups within the minority communities which vary from an assumed norm of Christianity and whose religious beliefs are manifested by various forms of dress or behaviour or by the celebration of particular festivals, may be particularly subject to racism if their faiths are neither understood nor accepted in their own right. Bringing about a greater understanding of the diversity of faiths present in Britain today can also therefore we believe play a major role in challenging and overcoming racism.

This chapter

1.4 In this chapter we discuss the various ways in which the concept of religious education has been perceived and the role which we would see for schools in the context of our multifaith society within our philosophy of 'Education for All'. We then go on to consider a particular dimension of the concerns of ethnic minority communities about the contribution of education to the maintenance of their religious beliefs, which has received increasing attention especially over the last few years - the 'separate' schools debate. Any consideration of religious education must recognise that there has long been an emotive and often passionate debate about the role of schools in relation to religion in a society which can be seen as increasingly secular in terms of the level of active religious observance amongst the majority of its members: a debate to which the multifaith character of schools with substantial ethnic minority populations has now added a further dimension. Religious education is of course also distinguished from other aspects of a school's work by the unique place which it is accorded in the 1944 Education Act. In this chapter therefore we set our conclusions within the context both of the provisions of the 1944 Education Act and of the ongoing debate about the aims and objectives of religious education.

2. The principles of religious education

2.1 Religious education is an aspect of school life which involves far more than the imparting of a particular body of knowledge to pupils, since it raises complex questions relating to the spiritual and aesthetic development of the individual young person as well as impinging very directly on the essential beliefs and values of his or her family and community. As HMI put it in their 'Red Book' (3):

'... in religious education, the school is operating on the boundary between itself and the local community in that it is dealing with the religious traditions, beliefs and values of the society in which it is set ... Religious education shares with other subjects the task of helping children to acquire the skills, knowledge and social competence necessary for their personal development and life in society ... However, religious education also makes a distinctive contribution to the curriculum in directing attention to the religious understanding of human life and to the central values (many of them derived from religion) which society seeks to uphold and to transmit. In this consideration of religion and values, the intention is to help pupils to understand the nature of religious questions and religious affirmations, and to develop a personal and intellectual integrity in dealing with the profoundest aspects of their own experience now and in adult life.'

2.2 It must also be recognised however that religious education is seen by many as a particularly difficult aspect of the educational experience to define since the phrase itself seems to be almost a contradiction in terms - the task of education being to teach children to exercise flexibility of mind and to seek rational explanations for situations, whilst the essence of religion is seen by many as belief, and in many faiths, an acceptance of revelation. This inherent paradox has been described in the following terms (4):

'There is a deep tension between education on the one hand and the religious and secular ideologies on the other. Education is critical, sceptical and enquiring. Religion is passionate, committed and adoring.'

Opposition to religious education in schools

2.3 Before considering the various interpretations which have been placed on religious education, it must be acknowledged that the very principle of religion having a place within the school curriculum has been challenged on the grounds that schools exist primarily to equip their pupils with a range of practical skills and factual information and it is beyond their role and responsibility to seek to educate pupils in an area of experience which is uniquely personal and in which there is no single accepted corpus of knowledge. Advocates of this 'secularist' viewpoint argue that religious education is the responsibility of the home and the religious communities and has no place, other than on purely historical and social grounds, within the maintained school system, least of all within 'secular' county schools. They therefore reject the concept of religious education seeing it as a form of indoctrination which seeks to 'impose' religion on young people. The following extract from evidence which we received from a Muslim educational organisation illustrates clearly however a commonly expressed response to the secularists' arguments:

'We accept the right of those who do not subscribe to any religion to refuse to be a party to religious education for their children ... But they have no right to deny religious education to those who want it. Imposing the "humanist" or "secular" viewpoint on those who do not subscribe to it is as bad as is the imposition of the religious view on the "humanist".'

Educational grounds

2.4 Turning to the 'case' which has been put forward by educationists and theologians for religious education, there appear to be three central reasons why religious education is considered to be a crucial element in the education process. Firstly, it is argued that in order for a young person to be considered fully educated, they must have some understanding of the nature of belief and of different belief systems and of how these have and are still influencing human experience. Such knowledge can by extension help in the formation of pupils' own personal beliefs and values, whether religious or non-religious - as the Durham Report (5) put it:

'... religious education has a place in the educational scene on educational grounds. where education is understood as the enriching of a pupil's experience, the opening up of a pupil to all the influences which have coloured his or her environment ... The existence of a religious interpretation of life is a fact of history and of present human experience. There are many millions of men and women throughout the world who find through their religious beliefs a deep meaning and purpose for their lives and a system of values by which their lives can be lived. There appears to be a "spiritual dimension" in man 50 nature which requires to be expressed by "religion" of one kind or another. By religion we mean some pattern of belief and behaviour related to the questions of man's ultimate concern. For some, it is an Eastern religion; for some it is Christianity; for others it is one of the secular creeds of the West, for example Marxism; for others it is agnostic humanism; for many it may be little more than moral stoicism. Man seems to have to find "a faith to live by"; however noble. or simple, or debased. Young people share in the human condition. They should have some opportunity to learn that religion is a feature of this condition. and for some men a deeply significant area of human knowledge and experience.'

2.5 It is also argued that an understanding and appreciation of religious diversity contributes to, and is indeed vital to, the development of a young person's understanding of the motivations, values and outlook of people from' a range of religious backgrounds, both within this society and in other societies - as the Berkshire agreed syllabus for religious education (6) puts it:

'Religious education contributes to international understanding in the world as a whole, and to community relations within Britain. Increasingly we live in one world, and increasingly Britain is a multicultural, multifaith society. It is vital that citizens should be familiar with a variety of beliefs and customs, and that they should have insight into the underlying values and concerns which different cultures and societies have in common.'

Key to moral education

2.6 A further justification often advanced for religious education is that it provides a basis and a context for a school's programme of moral education. Whilst some educationists have argued that moral education can be seen as self-standing and indeed self-justifying in its own right, it is clear that since both areas of education are concerned with attitudes, values and beliefs, as a Schools Council Report (7) has put it:

'... the insights and accumulated wisdom of the great world religions cannot be ignored in any comprehensive scheme of moral education.'

'Religious education contributes to moral development: along with other aspects of the school curriculum, it develops consideration for other people, respect for moral and legal obligations, and concern for fairness and justice in society at large.'

2.7 Turning to the various aims and objectives and forms of provision which have been suggested for religious education in schools, the three main possible approaches were defined as follows in the 1971 Schools Council Report, referred to above, which has influenced much of the subsequent thinking in this field:

'The 'confessional' or dogmatic approach

This begins with the assumption that the aim of religious education is intellectual and cultic indoctrination. It is often linked with a belief that any other kind of religious education is valueless or unworthy of the name ...

The anti-dogmatic approach

This rules out the subjective element from religious education and conceives it as an academic exercise, dispassionate and objective. The National Secular Society, for example, suggests that the study of religion on these terms should be included as part of the history syllabus ...

The 'phenomenological' or undogmatic approach

This sees the aim of religious education as the promotion of understanding. It uses the tools of scholarship in order to enter into an emphatic experience of the faith of individuals and groups. It does not seek to promote anyone religious viewpoint but it recognises that the study of religion must transcend the merely informative ...'

Distinction between 'religious' and 'educational' aspects

2.8 The phenomenological or non-denominational and undogmatic view draws a clear distinction between what can strictly speaking be termed 'religious instruction' i.e. instruction in a religion, and 'religious education' i.e. education in the concept of religion and in the range of belief systems which exist. It is seen as the function of the home and of the religious community to nurture and instruct a child in a particular faith (or not), and the function of the school to assist pupils to understand the nature of religion and to know something of the diversity of belief systems, their significance for individuals and how these bear on the community. The Durham Report expressed this clear distinction between the 'religious' and 'educational' aspects of religious education in the following terms:

'To press for acceptance of a particular faith or belief system is the duty and privilege of the churches and other similar religious bodies. It is certainly not the task of a teacher in a county school. If the teacher is to press for any conversion, it is conversion from a shallow and unreflective attitude of life. If he is to press for commitment, it is the commitment to the religious quest, to that search for meaning, purpose, and value which is open to all men.'

2.9 Much attention has been devoted to determining the place of Christianity within such a broader consideration of the nature of religious belief and of world faiths. The phenomenological approach to religious education seeks to move away from the notion of religious education as synonymous with 'Christian' education, nevertheless, as a discussion paper prepared by a working party of the Religious Education Council (8) put it:

'To say that it is not the duty of the county school to inculcate Christianity is not to deny that the study of Christianity will, on educational grounds, continue to occupy a central place in the syllabus.'

'The tradition of our national life has been largely shaped and sustained by behaviour and ideas closely associated with the practice of religion, and particularly the Christian religion. Since education involves a thorough examination of the environment and the received culture, this source of our national heritage should be studied and appreciated.'

'The Christian vision of the good life can no longer claim to be the only source of belief and value in our society ... Any attempt by educational institutions to transmit a sectional view as if it were the only publicly defensible one would contradict the value a democracy ascribes to individual judgement and responsibility.'

'... it is no part of the responsibility of a county school to promote any particular religious standpoint, neither could an exclusively Christian content do justice to the nature of the subject. A syllabus relevant to the needs of our children must also provide an introduction to other religious commitments and world views found in contemporary British society.'

'... while recognising that a truly pluralist society - if such we are - should not merely tolerate diversity but value and nurture it, I must also express the fear that at times we seem tempted to sacrifice too much of our native Christian tradition on the altar of multiculturalism ... when I read, in one approved syllabus, of the need in religious education "to set Christianity alongside other religions", as if it were part of some creedal smorgasbord, or that "it should be part of an education for life in this country that children come to know something of the traditional religion of the land, namely Christianity" (as if Christianity was, like Shakespeare, parliamentary democracy or roast beef, part of a living heritage rather than a living faith), I wonder whether we are not, as Christian educators, selling Christianity short by carrying our anti-confessionalism too far.'

Views of ethnic minority communities

2.10 Much of the evidence which we have received from ethnic minority communities has related to the provision of religious education in schools and particularly to the place accorded to religions other than Christianity. Many community representatives have emphasised the importance which their communities attach to their religious beliefs as a key element in their cultural identity, and it was strongly felt that all the religious communities in this country had the right to expect the education system to respect and to reflect their faiths, not by comparing them negatively with Christianity, but as valid belief systems in their own right - a viewpoint with which we fully agree. It was pointed out to us that religions such as Islam and Sikhism are major world faiths in a global context and are in no way therefore 'minority' religions, inferior to Christianity, simply because they might have fewer adherents in this country. It was also felt that a better understanding on the part of ethnic majority youngsters of a range of faiths would not only enhance their understanding of the religious dimension of life but would also help to counter negative stereotypes of ethnic minority groups, who were often identifiable as adherents of particular faiths, and would thus help to challenge and combat racism. As one Sikh organisation put it in their evidence to us:

'... it seems very much relevant that the children who are born in the (Sikh) faith should have an opportunity to know and understand this experience of the spiritual world. All those children who are born in other faiths should have an opportunity to learn about the experience of other peoples and other lands as if is one of the purposes of education. By providing this opportunity for our children in our schools we will be helping them to broaden their outlook and will make them better citizens of tomorrow's world. In our society ... there are people who follow different faiths and have different customs. For better community and race relations it is very appropriate that they should not remain ignorant about each other but better understanding should be developed among all these races and faiths. School is the right place to give the lead in this field.'

Our view

2.11 In the light of our general discussion earlier in this report of the various phases in the development of multicultural education, the confessional approach to religious education can be seen as very much in keeping with the assimilationist tradition since it regards the faiths of ethnic minority communities as inferior to Christianity and seeks therefore, in a 'missionary' spirit, to replace these faiths with a commitment to the 'superior' Christian religion. The view of religious education mentioned above held by some sections of certain ethnic minority religious communities can be seen, if taken to its logical conclusion of children from a particular faith community being 'instructed' only in their own religion, as also in the confessional spirit but, in terms of the nature of the educational provision made - i.e. with different groups of children receiving different forms of religious education - as separatist in effect. We ourselves therefore share the view expressed in the 1971 Schools Council Report that:

'... the "confessionalist" aim, though perfectly proper within a community of faith, is not appropriate within schools serving a multi-belief society. Moreover, it conflicts at several points with the principles on which education is based.'

*Note: 'Neo-confessionalism' is defined by the author as 'an attempt to make confessionalism more "modern" in method and more acceptable in a multicultural society. It tends to be an "open-ended" form of Christian education which may include some token acknowledgement of "other world faiths".'

2.12 In order to illustrate further our view of religious education, we reproduce below the general aims of religious education which the 1971 Schools Council Report put forward and which we broadly support:

'... religious education seeks to promote awareness of religious issues, and of the contribution of religion to human culture in general; it seeks to promote understanding of religious beliefs and practices, it also aims to awaken recognition of the challenge and practical consequences of religious belief ... These general aims can be broken down further and more particularly as follows (and here we also give examples - instances of the kind of objectives the teacher may have when devising a course of study).

1. Awareness of religious issues
  a. explicit issues - e.g. the capacity to understand the reasons for differences of religious belief, for instance within the Christian tradition.
  b. implicit issues - e.g. the capacity to explore music with a view to seeing whether it can give one new insights into the nature of the world; and, if so, the connection of these with questions about the purpose' of life.

2. Awareness of the contribution of religion to human culture e.g. acquiring knowledge of the ways in which the Christian heritage has influenced social life in different parts of the UK.

3. Capacity to understand beliefs e.g. understanding the Muslim conception of Allah, and the type of language employed to express this.

4. Capacity to understand practices e.g. understanding what worshipping is intended to do, and the use of symbolism in it.

5. Awareness of the challenge of religious belief e.g. the capacity to form a well-infomed judgement about Christian or atheistic belief

6. Awareness of the practical consequences of religious belief e.g. capacity to understand issues raised by pacifist elements in, for instance, the Christian and Buddhist traditions.'

3.1 Having discussed the principles which we see as underlying religious education appropriate to today's multifaith society, we now consider how these principles are being put into practice. Discussion of the practice of religious education must however take place against the background of the complex legal framework prescribed by the 1944 Education Act. Since some of the evidence we have received suggests that the precise terms of the Act are far from fully understood, we begin by summarising its provisions.

The legal position

3.2 It is often asserted that 'the 1944 Education Act requires all schools to provide religious education'. This statement is in fact an oversimplification of the provisions of the Act. Sections 25-30 of the Act are headed 'Religious education in County and Voluntary Schools' but no further explicit references to, or indeed definitions of religious education are made in any of these sections. From a reading of the Act however it is clear that 'religious education' is seen as an all-embracing term describing an overall process comprising two distinct but interrelated elements:

an act of collective worship; and

the provision of religious instruction.

Provisions of the 1944 Act

3.3 The Education Act 1944 prescribes that religious education should be provided in all maintained schools; that the school day should begin with an act of 'collective worship on the part of all pupils in attendance at the school' (13) and that religious instruction should be given to all pupils (14) - the only exception being when a parent requests that his child be 'wholly or partly excused' from the act of worship or the religious instruction provided. (15) Where a parent wishes his child to receive religious instruction of a kind not provided in their school, nor at a neighbouring county or voluntary school, the pupil may be withdrawn from school to receive instruction elsewhere, provided that the LEA is satisfied that this will not interfere with his attendance at school on any day or that it is provided at the beginning or end of the school day (16). In county schools neither the act of worship nor the religious instruction provided may be distinctive of any particular denomination, and the religious instruction must be given in accordance with an agreed syllabus. At secondary level where it has not proved possible to find suitable premises out of school for those children who have been withdrawn from the instruction provided by the school in order that they can receive instruction in a particular denomination, then the LEA, provided that the cost will not fall to them and that there are no special circumstances which would make it unreasonable to do so, must provide facilities for this purpose (17). (No comparable provision is made for children in primary schools). In voluntary controlled schools, the collective act of worship may be distinctive of the denomination which provided the school. The religious instruction provided must be in accordance with an agreed syllabus (18) unless the parents of any pupil attending the school request that their children receive religious instruction in accordance with the provision of the trust deed of the school. In that case, the governors of the school, unless they are satisfied that it would be unreasonable to do so, must arrange for denominational instruction to be provided during not more than two periods a week (19). In voluntary aided schools, the religious instruction provided is determined by the governors of the school in accordance with the trust deed of the school (20). If however the parents of any of the pupils attending the school wish them to receive religious education in accordance with an agreed syllabus, and they cannot with reasonable convenience attend a school at which that syllabus is in use, the governors must make arrangements for such education to be carried out during the times set aside for religious instruction unless the LEA is satisfied that it would be unreasonable to do so. In cases where the governors are unwilling to make such arrangements the LEA themselves must do so (21). The governors of an aided school are free to decide the qualifications they require teachers appointed to give religious instruction to hold (subject to the teachers having DES qualified teacher status) and can dismiss such a teacher (providing they are not solely employed to give instruction in accordance with an agreed syllabus) if he or she 'fails to give such instruction efficiently and suitably', without the consent of the LEA (22).

3.4 Although, as we have seen, the Act did not specify that either the act of collective worship or the religious instruction provided in county schools should be explicitly Christian (23), it is clear from the following assurance given by a government minister in the House of Lords at the time (24) that this was the intention:

'... it is the intention of the government and of the Bill that the religious instruction required to be given shall be Christian instruction, and that the corporate act of worship shall be an act of Christian worship ...'

The act of collective worship

Origins and intentions

3.6 In laying down a requirement for a daily act of worship in schools, the 1944 Education Act can be seen as in many respects merely lending statutory support to what was already at that time a recognised procedure in most schools at the time, having its roots in the last [19th] century when the church played such a central role in education (25). The philosophy and original intent behind the provision for an act of collective worship are clearly indicated in the following extract from the 1943 White Paper 'Educational Reconstruction', which preceded the Act:

'There has been a very general wish, not confined to representatives of the churches, that religious education should be given a more defined place in the life and work of the schools, springing from the desire to revive the spiritual and personal values in our society and in our national tradition. The church, the family, the local community and the teacher - all have their part in imparting religious instruction to the young. In order to emphasise the importance of the subject, provision will be made jar the school day in all primary and secondary schools to begin with a corporate act of worship.'

Variety of approaches to assemblies

3.7 As the aims and content of religious education have come under increasing scrutiny however, and particularly as the situation of schools with pupil populations encompassing a range of beliefs and non-religious belief systems has been raised, the relevance and appropriateness of the collective act of worship has increasingly come to be questioned. In an attempt to respond to the variety of religious backgrounds from which their pupils now come, which it has been claimed makes an act of collective worship in the spirit of the 1944 Act difficult if not impossible to achieve, many multiracial schools have in recent years tended to move away from the notion of a spiritual act of worship towards seeing the school assembly as a social and administrative occasion, sometimes, but by no means always, with spiritual overtones (26). Other multiracial schools have sought to give some recognition to religions other than Christianity through including references to religious festivals from other faiths in assemblies, while a number of schools have continued with a traditional Christian-oriented act of worship. This range of approaches was reflected in the findings of Young and Connelly's 1981 Study (27) which found that:

'The question of assembly in particular has been very largely left to heads to decide with the result that ... a remarkable variety of approaches was indicated from more or less traditional Christian assemblies with the occasional reference to Hindu, Sikh or Muslim festivals to what seemed to be a more or less universalistic approach concerned with moral themes ... In the absence of support, advice and guidance from advisers, heads were evidently tempted to resolve the religious dilemma by ignoring it.'

3.8 The evidence which we obtained from multiracial schools confirmed this view of the variety of approaches adopted towards assemblies. For example the following extract from evidence from one secondary school was typical of those where the assembly was seen entirely as an 'administrative' exercise:

'School assembly has ceased to follow precisely the 1944 Act, and is non-denominational. It could be described more as the school's daily news-sheet and magazine, with moral overtones.'

'Daily assemblies take their material from varied sources. Religious festivals from major religions are looked at as are parables from world religions. Prophets and outstanding men connected with particular faiths are quoted and discussed e.g. Gandhi. Themes such as tolerance, love, prejudice, jealousy and war are dealt with. Many contributions come from pupils themselves.'

'(Assemblies) take place each morning as required by the 1944 Act. They are brief and are usually based on a simple topic. Sometimes children bring work to show to others, or a class may perform a short song or poem. All prayers are short and sensitivity to the belief of the Muslim is always shown. Sometimes film strips are shown which centre around themes such as giving, sharing, caring etc ... There are no objections from the Asian Community and no child is withdrawn from attendance at assembly. Parents are sometimes invited to join us at the beginning of the day.'

3.9 The 1944 Act provides for individual parents to withdraw their children from the school's act of worship. Very few multiracial schools we contacted however mentioned ethnic minority parents making use of this 'conscience clause'. Whilst schools tended to ascribe this either to the move away from a 'religious' towards an administrative assembly which could thus not conflict with parental religious beliefs, or to their attempts to broaden the scope of the faiths encompassed by their assemblies, many community representatives suggested that ethnic minority parents were often simply unaware of their right to withdraw their children. One of the Muslim organisations who gave evidence to us indicated that they had advised parents as follows:

'... in the exercise of their legal rights as granted to them by the law of the land, the Muslim parents should not feel hesitant or embarrassed on their action which is within the scope of the Education Act, Section 25 and is being utilised by other religious groups as well.'

3.10 It must be recognised that assemblies which do not contain a collective act of worship are contrary to the spirit and indeed the letter of the law and whilst an assembly may include an act of collective worship the two terms are neither synonymous nor interchangeable as so often seems to be assumed. Concern about the provisions of the 1944 Act and about whether a revision of the Act in respect of the provision for collective worship might be necessary, was evident from the submissions received by the Select Committee on Education, Science and Arts when it considered this whole issue in 1981. As the Church of England Board of Education put it in their evidence to the Select Committee (28):

'The Board accepts the difficulty at the present time of implementing the law relating to a daily act of worship. There are reasons why communities need to assemble and some schools have developed patterns for such assemblies surrounding national, local or school themes. We need to be clear, however, that such assemblies are not necessarily 'acts of worship'. Some schools disregard the law, some perfunctorily observe it, while others have with imagination and pupil participation revolutionised the atmosphere of the assembly ... This Board would welcome an opportunity to discuss with the Secretary of State a revision of the clauses in the J 944 Act relating to assemblies so that more flexibility both as regards the frequency and the nature of acts of worship might be possible in the future.'

'... the law prohibit any act of worship taking place within the school timetable.'

'Without denying the validity of Christian concerns within the school it does seem wrong to assume that a state school in a pluralist society should be committed to 'worship' as if the children were all Christians.'

'... the Secretary of State should now begin discussions with interested bodies, including the church authorities about guidance to schools on the school act of worship. These discussions should also include the possibility that legislative changes may be necessary.'

'The government recognise that a variety of practice has grown up in the form and content of the act of worship. The government believe that this reflects the complexity and variety of present day society and differences in the organisation of schools. They do not believe that it would be helpful to seek to standardise practice in this respect, but they are ready to receive representations about the act of worship from the churches and others at any time.'

The provision of religious instruction

The 'case' for agreed syllabuses

3.11 The provisions of the 1944 Education Act require that in every county school religious 'instruction' shall be given in accordance with an 'agreed syllabus' drawn up by a local education authority following a complex consultative procedure laid down in the Fifth Schedule to the Act (see Annex A). This requirement adds further to the unique position in which the Act places religious education since it is the only subject in the school curriculum for which a legally supported syllabus is required. The justification for the agreed syllabus procedure is generally held to be that it safeguards denominational interests and also relieves teachers of the direct responsibility for determining what is taught in an area of the curriculum which is particularly sensitive and controversial. As the report of a Religious Education Council Working Party (30) has put it:

'In a society which has many diverse views about religion and has a multiplicity of life-stances, parents and the public generally often wish to know what is supposed to be taught in a subject about which many have strong feelings. Teachers wish to be assured that what they are doing has a measure of public support to safeguard them against unreasonable criticism from a parent or a partisan section of society.'

'We do not think that the existing complicated legal machinery for drawing up, adopting, or varying an agreed syllabus should be retained. This is a relic of the ecclesiastical era in religious education, when the content of the curriculum had to be 'agreed' between representatives of the Church of England, other churches in the area which had a claim to be heard, the local education authority, and teachers. We are aware that much creative work was done, and some impressive syllabuses have emerged from it; but we believe this legal machinery to be no longer relevant. Moreover, we see no reason why, in religious education any more than in any other subject, one particular syllabus should be imposed by any local education authority.'

3.12 Although the Act does not state this explicitly, and indeed says nothing about the content or objectives of agreed syllabuses, it is clear that the intention of the requirement for an agreed syllabus was that it would primarily seek to nurture pupils in the Christian faith and this was indeed the approach adopted by LEAs over the next 30 years. A major departure from this interpretation of the role of agreed syllabus came in 1975 however with the preparation of a new agreed syllabus by Birmingham LEA. The conference which had prepared this syllabus included representatives of a range of religious communities, as well as taking account of the views of Humanist representatives, and the syllabus itself reflected this variety of view by including for study, alongside Christianity, not only other major world faiths but also other 'life stances' such as Humanism and Marxism. The compilers of the Birmingham syllabus justified this radical shift in the following terms:

'A generation ago the purpose of religious education in county schools was to nurture pupils into Christian faith, and the agreed syllabus of religious instruction was one of the instruments whereby this was to be achieved. In the present circumstances religious education is seen as an educationally valid component of the school curriculum, subject to the same disciplines as other areas of study. It is thus directed towards developing a critical understanding of the religious and moral dimensions of human experience and away from attempting to foster the claims of particular religious standpoints. The syllabus should thus be used to enlarge and deepen the pupils' understanding of religion by studying world religions, and by exploring all those elements in human experience which raise questions about life's ultimate meaning and value. This involves informing pupils in a descriptive, critical and experiential manner about what religion is, and increasing their sensitivity to the areas of experience from which a religious view of life may arise. It should stimulate within the pupils, and assist them in the search for, a personal sense of meaning in life, whilst enabling them to understand the beliefs and commitments of others.'

'The approach to religious education exemplified in this syllabus places it within a wide frame of reference. Whilst in some respects religious education is the task of the specialist teacher, in others it is woven into the pattern of community relationships. The whole life of the school should be one in which the mind can be enlarged and moral responsibility exercised. Those who have prepared this syllabus have been constantly challenged by the need for schools to play their part in the task of preparing young people for life within the community. They have been conscious of the swift rate of social change and of the new Birmingham which is being created, where men and women and boys and girls are having to learn to live and work together in a pluralist situation. This is not to deny that the Christian religion is still a source of guidance and inspiration for many people living in the city, and that Christianity is part of our heritage. They also fully acknowledge the presence of significantly large minorities of people committed to other religions and stances for living, and seek to utilise this situation to create new unities and new insights rather than deeply rooted divisions. Prejudice arises from ignorance and fear, evils which can be fought and overcome to some extent within the context of the school community; for here ignorance can be confounded by knowledge and fear may give place to mutual understanding.'

'initiation into agnosticism ... an invitation to non-commitment' (31)

3.13 Since the appearance of the Birmingham syllabus, a number of other authorities, including Hampshire to which we have already referred, have developed similarly broad agreed syllabuses which focus on developing children's understanding and appreciation of the nature of belief itself and of a range of belief systems, rather than seeking to convert or confirm children into any particular religion or ideology whether Christian or non-Christian. A recent example of such a syllabus, which clearly follows the phenomenological approach to religious education, is provided by the 1982 Berkshire agreed syllabus and we reproduce as Annex B to this chapter the statement of aims and objectives put forward in this document. Despite the development of such progressive and broadly-based agreed syllabuses in certain parts of the country, it is important to remember that only a few LEAs have sought to revise their syllabuses in this way and many, including some with substantial non-Christian faith communities, still retain agreed syllabuses, drawn up in the late 1950s, which still focus almost exclusively on Christian education.

Our evidence gathering

3.14 In the course of our work we have devoted a considerable amount of attention to the issues raised by the teaching of religious education in today's multifaith context and much of our evidence from ethnic minority communities has related to their concerns about this aspect of education. We have brought together groups of teachers of religious education and other specialists in this field, drawn from local authority advisory services, examining boards and teacher training institutions, to discuss their views on the development of religious education. We also obtained evidence from a range of primary and secondary schools, and in the course of our school visits sought particularly to meet religious education teachers and to observe some lessons in this subject area.

3.15 The majority of religious education teachers whom we met, in schools with multifaith pupil populations, were in favour of the phenomenological approach to religious education which we ourselves have advocated. It was repeatedly emphasised however that developing an approach to religious education which was appropriate to the needs of all youngsters living in Britain today presented a great challenge to teachers and the amount of work required, in terms of revising syllabuses and developing new material, should not be underestimated. Some of the teachers who favoured broadening the scope of religious education to encompass a range of world faiths expressed doubts to us about covering 'non-religious' belief systems, such as Humanism and Marxism, since they regarded this as a 'watering down' of the essential religious character of their subject. The majority of teachers whom we met however felt that youngsters should have some understanding of such life stances since they had also been significant in human history. Several of the religious education teachers with whom we discussed this issue stressed that a substantial number of their colleagues, especially those working in 'all white' areas, still saw their work strictly in terms of 'scripture and Bible studies', and we were therefore only 'preaching to the converted' in discussing our views with them. It was strongly felt that, on educational grounds and in the global context, as well as in today's multiracial Britain, all pupils needed to understand and appreciate a wide range of belief systems. Several teachers who had introduced such an approach in their own schools, emphasised how much it had enhanced pupils' (and indeed parents') interest in and enjoyment of the subject, and in some cases had led to increased numbers of pupils studying for examinations. Where there was some parental resistance (usually from the majority community) to studying religions other than Christianity, it was felt that this could best be overcome through 'parent education' - explaining to parents what the school was endeavouring to achieve through its religious education programme.

3.16 We discussed with religious education teachers their views on how their own religious convictions could and should affect their teaching. Whilst some teachers took the view that, if asked, they should explain and defend their own beliefs to their pupils, others deliberately avoided expressing their own views in the classroom, in the belief that these would inevitably condition pupils' perception of different religions. Several teachers stressed however that pupils needed to be encouraged to understand and 'empathise' with the views of adherents of a range of faith communities, to appreciate why these views were held, and then to seek to assess them personally. Only through this process could they consider what they themselves believed.

3.17 Considerable concern has been expressed to us that religious education, like E2L work, is often seen as a school's 'token gesture' towards the presence of ethnic minority pupils and the religious education teacher is therefore regarded as the multicultural 'expert'. It has been suggested that if the religious education syllabus had been broadened to include some references, however, superficial, to the faiths of ethnic minority communities, then, even though the rest of the curriculum remains untouched, the school is 'doing' multicultural education. Several of the religious education teachers felt that they often had a particular insight into the needs and concerns of ethnic minority pupils and their families because of their understanding of the influence of religion on their lives, and were therefore able to act as catalysts within the school to encourage curriculum development on a broader front. Some teachers even felt that they might be able to influence positively the way in which ethnic minority communities were presented in other areas of the curriculum, by for example encouraging their colleagues in the history department to review the way in which events such as the Crusades were dealt with or their colleagues in the geography department to consider how life in developing countries was presented, to avoid creating or adding to a negative stereotype of non-Christian communities. We ourselves would emphasise that the kind of religious education we have advocated here can only be truly effective if the principle of respect and recognition for a range of religious beliefs is seen to permeate all a school's provision within our philosophy of 'Education for All'. It is obvious for example that little will be achieved by seeking to promote a balanced appreciation of Islam and its influence on the lives of its adherents in the religious education syllabus, whilst at the same time, in the history syllabus, presenting the Crusades solely from a Christian viewpoint. It was regrettably also felt by many teachers that religious education was often accorded a low status by schools and they often had to fight to retain its place in the timetable and for the right to participate in policy discussions alongside their colleagues from other subject areas. This having been said however, many of the religious education specialists whom we met felt that their subject was one of the, if not the, most important areas of the school curriculum where positive progress could be made in reflecting and acknowledging the diversity now present in 'British society, and also in discussing fundamental 'moral' issues such as racism.

Teaching materials and resources

3.18 Several teachers expressed concern to us about the difficulties of obtaining textbooks and teaching materials which reflected a multifaith view of religious education and which did not present religions other than Christianity in negative or inaccurate terms. Whilst it was acknowledged that out of date textbooks which misrepresented other religions might cause offence to adherents of these faiths, the view was also expressed that such textbooks might themselves provide a valuable subject for discussion with pupils since they raised issues relating to stereotyping, religious prejudice and how non-believers could perceive other faiths. Since, members of ethnic minority groups were likely to encounter such ill-informed and damaging comments about their religious beliefs in their daily lives, because racism was felt to be a feature of life in Britain, it was felt that such discussions might help them to understand and cope with such reactions, as well as seeking to alter the views of their ethnic majority peers. Several teachers emphasised the value in teaching in multifaith schools of being able to draw on the experiences of adherents of different faiths within the classroom and from the local community. It was emphasised however that the experiences of individual pupils should be used sensitively and that they should never be presented as 'curiosities' thus adding to, rather than countering, negative stereotypes. The opportunity for visits to the places of worship of a range of religious groups was seen as a potentially very helpful 'living resource' for the teacher, but again it was stressed that such visits should not be presented as, in the words of one teacher, 'a zoo trip or a safari into hostile territory', but must form an integral part of an ongoing religious education programme with adequate preparation - to establish the context for the visit - and adequate follow up - to resolve any outstanding misunderstandings or questions. Similarly it was suggested that involving adherents of different religious faiths in speaking to pupils about aspects of their beliefs could prove immensely valuable both in bringing to life the faiths concerned and in enhancing the pupils' appreciation of the presence of a range of faith communities within this society and possibly within the school's own locality. We certainly support the use of both visits and outside speakers from different faiths to illustrate aspects of religious education but strongly reiterate the need for careful preparation and sensitivity in using such 'living resources'.

3.19 Some of the ethnic minority representatives whom we met expressed the opinion that only a teacher who was him or herself an adherent of a particular faith could teach that faith to pupils. When we discussed this viewpoint with teachers, some of whom were themselves of ethnic minority origin, it was pointed out that if this approach were adopted in schools seeking to cover a range of world faiths this would necessitate perhaps four or five teachers 'representing' the different religions, which would clearly not be feasible. In addition however, this approach was felt to be justifiable only where a confessional approach was adopted, which sought to bring about a degree of commitment on the part of the pupil to a particular faith. Since the philosophy of the phenomenological approach to religious education was however not to teach children a religion but rather to teach children to understand the nature of belief and a range of belief systems, it was felt that this attitude was unjustified. It was recognised however that considerable skill and sensitivity were required on the part of a teacher, who might well have a personal commitment to a particular faith, in order to present other faiths as valid in their own right and great care needed to be exercised in seeking to 'define other people's realities', especially when teaching a class which included pupils who were themselves drawn from particular faith communities. In this context it was again suggested that the use of outside speakers from different communities might prove helpful.

Practice in schools

3.20 As with other areas of the curriculum, we would not seek to put forward detailed course guidelines and the existence of agreed syllabuses which we have already discussed and to which we return in our conclusion, clearly at present conditions the work which can be undertaken by schools. It may be helpful however to draw together here some comments and examples of classroom practice taken from the evidence which we have received, which serve to illustrate the practical implications of our view of religious education.

Primary level

3.21 In most primary schools religious education takes place within the time devoted to storytelling and the time set aside for specific projects. It is not generally speaking a distinct subject in the curriculum but rather an integral part of the overall learning situation. At primary level it is of course particularly important for teachers to relate their work directly to the experiences and needs of their pupils. As Dr W Owen Cole has written (32):

'From the outset it must be recognised that almost all successful primary education derives its effectiveness from beginning where the children are, from capturing their interests and extending and enriching their experiences. Their concern is much more with the tangible and what they can imaginatively experience than with abstract ideas. Consequently theology is out as such, whether it be the Christian doctrine of the life eternal or the Hindu belief in rebirth. Those things which are "in" are those which can become real to the children, how people dress, the foods they eat, how they greet one another, going to a wedding, where they worship and when, how they worship. Some of the religious stories may have a place, certainly how the sacred texts are handled and treated by believers in their homes and in worship as well as something about the languages they are written in.'

'We tell stories from all religions. With older children we compare and contrast in a friendly way customs, beliefs and rituals. Marriage ceremonies, for example, provide an excellent opportunity to show how each in their own way seek to support the concept of family as a basis for their society.'

'There is hardly any evidence of work that takes full account of our multi-ethnic society.'

Religious education coordinator

3.23 Several of the teachers whom we met expressed the view that the development of religious education provision at this level, especially with regard to broadening the syllabus to encompass a multifaith perspective, could be greatly assisted where an individual teacher was nominated to coordinate this field of work. It was suggested that this would help to ensure that the school kept abreast of recent developments on materials and resources and also kept in touch with other schools in its areas. The specific role of such a religious education 'coordinator' in a primary school was summarised in evidence to us as follows:

• 'collecting up-to-date information about resources, and advising other teachers about the availability;
• attending meetings and courses, and reporting back on them;
• maintaining a small collection of handbooks and other materials for use in the school;
• ensuring that the school library and other resource collections in the school include books and materials relevant to religious education;
• helping colleagues to plan some of their topic and projects;
• liaising with other schools, including the secondary schools to which pupils eventually move.'

Secondary level

3 .24 At secondary level, a more explicit approach to religious education is possible. Dr Owen Cole has suggested the following approaches (34):

'"Where We Worship" might provide a first introduction to religious practices other than the domestic and social celebrations which accompany festivals, births and weddings. Visits to places of worship often stimulate eleven year olds not only to make models or draw pictures, but also to talk and write about their experiences. The visit to any empty synagogue or gurdwara proves interesting because it is different; the value is enhanced if good guides are available (i.e., those who can talk to children), and of course film-strips or slides, accompanied by such sounds as the Muslim call to prayer or the singing of bhajans in a Hindu temple, go far towards providing the authenticity which can only be obtained fully by attending an act of worship. One must remember that for many Hindus or Sikhs a visit to a Christian church is also novel and interesting, and that for the child from a traditional English home it is perhaps no less strange.

From the places of worship, besides moving towards ways of worshipping, it is also natural to progress towards books used in worship (hymn books as well as sacred texts) and to the people through whom the particular faith was revealed. (For pupils aged 12 and 13 it is) an appropriate time for gathering together the fragmentary knowledge of various kinds, geographical and historical as well as religious, which has been acquired since the age of five.

The upper years, from thirteen to sixteen, are those when the teacher might try to probe as far as possible in assisting the student to understand what it means in terms of practices, belief or commitment to be Jew, a Muslim or a Christian.'

The 'all-white' dimension

3.26 It is important to bear in mind that it is not only in multiracial schools that religious education can play an important role in contributing to a better understanding on the part of all pupils of the variety of faiths in our society and in breaking down racist attitudes. As one writer has put it (35):

'Too often teachers in predominantly white schools consider themselves fortunate to be spared the "problems" of a multiracial society. But we do not see cultural pluriformity as being a "problem" ... The staff of a Cambridgeshire primary school in a mainly white area recently became alarmed by the growth of National Front attitudes among their pupils. A head of department of a school in the more affluent suburbs of Liverpool took a term off to plan projects which would help to counter the unthinkingly prejudiced attitudes which he felt were being ignored in his school. Much unintentional racism stems from a lack of information and a failure to question general assumptions.

Some RE teachers in predominantly white as well as racially mixed schools who have adopted a World Religions syllabus have found that this approach has revitalised the whole subject, and that pupils are asking to take CSE and O Levels. In junior schools and in the first years of secondary school the best approach is thematic. The first introduction to World Religions will be through a study of festivals and sacred places, not through a study of belief or even of the life of the founder (where that is appropriate). A class studying the mosque as part of a scheme of work on sacred places will not only discover how Muslims regard the mosque and what they do there, but will also learn something about the architecture of the building and the designs and calligraphy which adorn it. They may trace out examples of Arabic script, finding the letters of 'Allah' and 'Muhammad'; they may colour Islamic patterns and try to design some of their own; they may learn why it would be inappropriate to include calligraphy in a prayer-mat; they might draw or model a mihrab. Such activities help pupils to get a feel for some aspects of Islamic faith and culture. But then the teacher will at some stage need to find ways of relating what the pupils have learnt about Islam to the existence of Muslim communities in Britain. In schools with no mosque near enough to visit, slides of the Regent's Park mosque might perhaps be shown. Perhaps the class will learn that Muslims from Britain will go on the hajj and visit the mosques of Mecca and Medina. It is important that the study be done in sufficient depth. A swift 'conducted tour' round the gurdwara, the mosque, the parish church, the synagogue and the Hindu temple in half a term is not likely to do much to promote imaginative understanding.'

4.1 Clearly a major factor in the development of religious education provision has been the availability of specialist teachers of religious education and the extent to which their training has prepared them to adopt a phenomenological approach to their work which acknowledges the religious diversity of Britain today.

Early developments

4.2 Looking back, the provisions of the 1944 Education Act created an immediate demand for teachers of religious education in all schools. Not surprisingly there was a serious shortage of such teachers since until the implementation of the Act, religion could not be offered as a qualifying subject for the teacher's certificate. It had therefore become fairly common practice to depute the subject to any teacher willing to teach it and who had some knowledge of the Bible. As the 1971 Schools Council Report commented:

'That inadequate view of the equipment required by an RE teacher is not uncommon today.'

'We are impressed by how much has been done in a relatively short time. But we are even more impressed by how inadequate it all is.'

4.3 An indication of the extent to which the supply of adequately trained teachers of religious education has failed to keep pace with the development of the subject, and the difficulties which this situation has created for schools, was given in the findings of the HMI Secondary Survey in 1977 (36) which found that:

'Of the 608 teachers (331 men, 277 women) who taught religious education as their first or only subject 122 (20 per cent) did not record this as their first or second subject of study. Of the 486 teachers who had qualifications in the subject, 213 were graduates and 202 certificated teachers in secondary education. While rather more than half of the grammar school teachers were graduates, the figure for comprehensive schools was just over one third and for modern schools about one fifth. 44 (7 per cent) of the 608 teachers were part-time, 17 per cent were probationary teachers and 43 per cent had had 5 years' teaching experience or less.'

*Mod - Modern
Gram - Grammar
FRC - Full ability range comprehensive
RRC - Restricted ability range comprehensive
Trans - Transitional

Broader view of religious education

4.4 As far as the content of the specialist training received by religious education teachers is concerned, the 1971 Schools Council report which advocated the phenomenological approach to religious education offered the following comments on the adequacy of much of the training available at the time:

'The study of the main religions of the world has an obvious educational justification in its own right, but the need for deeper understanding of the beliefs and customs of immigrant pupils may urge more concentration on one or two religions instead of a superficial world tour ... Some theological faculties seem to go on with their traditional questions and problems. The meeting of world religions, the need for dialogue between them, has still no significant place in many theological schools and seminaries. Tutors would be foolish to wait for a lead from such theological faculties rather than to take other steps to equip themselves and their students for the needs of today.'

5. Conclusion

5.1 We believe that religious education can play a central role in preparing all pupils for life in today's multiracial Britain, and can also lead them to a greater understanding of the diversity of the global community. We feel that religious education of the kind which we have discussed here can also contribute towards challenging and countering the influence of racism in our society. As we have explained, we believe that the phenomenological approach to religious education reflects most closely the aims underlying 'Education for All', in laying the foundations for the kind of genuinely pluralist society which we envisaged at the opening of this report. In this chapter we have set out what we regard as the fundamental aims and objectives of religious education, and also considered the practical implications of these principles at classroom level.

5.2 It is important to recognise that the stance which we have adopted in this chapter towards the role of schools in providing religious education should in no way be seen as conflicting with the role of individual faith communities to provide religious instruction and, as the Durham Report put it:

'... to nurture a child into a particular faith'.

5.3 More specifically however, the conclusions which we have reached in this chapter have a direct bearing on the provisions of the 1944 Education Act. As we have already seen, a number of people have suggested that some or all of the sections of the Act relating to religious education should be amended or repealed. During our consideration of religious education we have ourselves found it increasingly difficult to reconcile our own views on religious education with the requirements and the spirit of the Act. Since the Act perceives two distinct elements in religious education, it may be worthwhile considering each of these in turn. With regard to the requirement for a daily act of collective worship in every county and voluntary school, we do not believe that this requirement can continue to be justified with the multiplicity of beliefs and non-beliefs now present in our society. We would not however wish to restrict the freedom of county schools to make provision for collective worship if it seems appropriate and is acceptable to their pupils and parents. Similarly however we believe the freedom not to make such provision should no longer be restricted by law. As we have pointed out, many county schools are in fact already in breach of the provisions of the Act in this respect and this would simply mean therefore regularising their existing practice. Within the existing dual system of education in this country, the trust deeds of some voluntary schools will however still require them to hold an act of collective worship. In relation to school assemblies, as opposed to an act of worship, we believe that they can be seen to fulfil a 'social' and an administrative function in schools, especially at primary level, and as such are an important aspect of school life.

5.4 In relation to religious education, or in the terms of the Act religious 'instruction' - we have already explained that we regard the study of the nature of belief and of a range of belief systems as an essential and integral part of the educational experience of every child. This is not however to say that provision in this area of the curriculum should necessarily be required by law nor that it should be set within the complex framework established by the Act. Whilst we regard religious education in the sense in which we have discussed it in this chapter as an essential aspect of the curriculum we would not see it as any more essential than the other aspects of education which we have discussed in this report. If religious education is indeed regarded as such an important aspect of education, it seems difficult to accept the case for legally providing for pupils to be withdrawn from it. This anomalous position in our view raises serious doubts about the justification for the specific provisions of the Act. Clearly if the provision of religious education (instruction) continues to be required by law, and if there is a likelihood that the provision made may adopt a confessional approach, based on a Christian dominated agreed syllabus, then the right of withdrawal must be retained. If, however, as we wish, religious education is broadened to follow a phenomenological approach which seeks to 'inform' rather than to 'convert' pupils, and if the position of religious education within the curriculum is acknowledged and accepted on educational rather than religious grounds, then we feel that the legal requirement for provision to be made, the legal provision for withdrawal and the requirement for agreed syllabuses, are no longer justified.

5.5 We therefore believe that the government, in consultation with religious and educational bodies, should look afresh at the relevant provisions of the 1944 Act, to see whether alterations are called for after an interval of 40 years (paragraphs 5.3 and 5.5).

II. The 'separate' schools debate

1. Background

1.1 We now turn to considering a rather different dimension of the role of the school in relation to the diversity of today's multifaith society, and one which has dominated much recent thinking in the 'multicultural' field and on which much of our own evidence has focused - the moves by certain ethnic minority communities, motivated primarily by religious concerns, to establish their own 'separate' schools as an alternative to the existing mainstream system. As will become apparent, the term 'separate schools' covers a variety of aspirations on the part of members of some ethnic minority communities for the establishment of schools which they feel would provide a more appropriate and acceptable environment for the education of their children. We have however continued to use the umbrella term in this rather imprecise sense because of its widespread usage in this field.

Voluntary aided schools

1.2 Almost without exception, pressure for 'separate' schools has focused on the case for establishing schools for certain ethnic minority communities within the maintained system i.e. as voluntary aided (37) schools. (There are of course already a number of 'separate' schools catering for particular ethnic minority communities outside the maintained system - i.e. independent schools - but it is outside our terms of reference to consider these and the current debate has not really concerned them.) The right of ethnic minority communities to seek to establish their own voluntary aided schools is firmly enshrined in law. Under the provisions of the 1944 Education Act ethnic minority communities, along with any other group of individuals, are entitled to make proposals for the establishment of a voluntary aided school to cater for their children's educational needs. The final decision on whether or not to approve the proposals rests with the Secretary of State for Education and Science. (Further details of the procedure for the establishment of voluntary aided schools are given in the background explanatory notes provided by the DES and attached as Annex E). Where an ethnic minority community which wishes to establish a voluntary aided school is of a distinct religious character, their school would thus be parallel to existing Church of England, Roman Catholic and indeed Jewish schools which are already part of our education system. Where the ethnic minority community concerned does not have a clear religious identity we understand from the DES that proposals to establish a voluntary aided school may be complicated by the provisions of the 1976 Race Relations Act which do not allow for admissions to a maintained school to be limited according to race.

Contrast with existing multiracial schools

1.3 Some advocates of 'separate' schools have expressed the view that discussion about their relative advantages and disadvantages has to some extent been overtaken by events in that there are already a number of schools, both primary and secondary, which are already de facto 'separate' schools for particular ethnic minority groups in all but name and legal status, since they have a considerable majority of ethnic minority pupils. There are however two essential differences between such schools and true 'separate' schools. Firstly, existing multiracial schools have not been set up expressly to cater for a particular denominational or racial group and we would therefore expect them to be providing an education for their pupils essentially no different from that offered by any school in the country i.e. an education which reflects the pluralist nature of our society and which is not limited to the perspective of anyone group, whether minority or majority. They cannot therefore be seen as 'exemplars' of the kind of 'separate' schools which have been proposed which would be very different in character since the nature of their pupil populations would be determined not simply by the make up of their catchment areas (which could of course change over time), but would be intentionally prescribed and enshrined in the school's status. A further difference is that whilst some existing schools may appear to have a majority of pupils from a particular ethnic minority group, this may well be a considerable oversimplification of the various groups represented in the school - for example the description of a school as almost wholly 'Asian' would clearly be of little relevance to proposals to establish a Muslim denominational school since the two 'groups' are hardly synonymous. Even where there are schools with a majority of pupils sharing the same religious affinity, it must also be recognised that their parents have sent them to a school which they see as part of the mainstream system and as having no explicit 'ethnic identity'. If the character of the school were to be emphasised however, for example by its establishment as a Muslim school, some parents might well then have reservations about their children's position there, since the communities are by no means united in the belief that 'separate' provision is desirable. We believe it is misleading therefore to look on existing multiracial schools as parallels to the likely situation of any 'separate' schools which might be established to cater explicitly for certain ethnic minority groups.

2. The concerns of the Asian community

Religious context

2.1 The debate about the establishment of 'separate' schools by ethnic minority communities has focused in recent years on the pressure from Hindus, Sikhs and above all Muslims within the Asian community in this country to establish their own denominational voluntary aided schools within the maintained system. In 1980 there was an attempt by some of the Sikh community in Southall to acquire an existing secondary school, in 1983 a group of Muslim parents in Bradford sought to purchase a total of five schools - two first schools, two middle schools and an upper school and Kirklees LEA is currently considering an application from a Muslim group to acquire the premises of an existing school in order to establish a voluntary aided Muslim primary school. Since the groups which have sought to establish these schools are of a clearly religious character it is often argued that their efforts represent nothing more than an attempt to extend the existing dual system of educational provision in this country to embrace other faiths which are now part of British society, and the resistance and antagonism which such attempts have aroused have been seen as manifestations of institutional racism in that the 'system' is failing to accord equal treatment to the religions of ethnic minority groups. We believe however that these calls for the establishment of their own denominational schools also need to be seen within the context of the overall concerns of ethnic minority communities about the education of their children and particularly their concerns about the religious education and the general 'ethos' provided by existing schools.

The case for 'separate' schools

2.2 A range of different objectives have been advanced by those Asian groups which have sought to establish their own voluntary aided schools.

Balance of the curriculum

Because of their essentially religious character it is hardly surprising that a major reason put forward by these groups has been concern about what they see as the Christian-dominated religious education provided by existing mainstream schools and a consequent desire to give their children the opportunity to learn about the religious traditions of their own faith communities in a positive and accurate manner. (We have of course already referred in the earlier part of this chapter to the widespread concern amongst ethnic minority groups about what they regard as the lack of respect and recognition accorded to their religions by many schools.) This specific concern about religious education provision has also been broadened to encompass other concerns about the balance and bias of much of the rest of the curriculum offered by mainstream schools for example the lack of attention given to the varied history, literature and culture of the Asian community and the lack of adequate support and encouragement for 'mother tongue' languages - which it is again suggested the establishment of their own schools would be able to counter.

Ethnic minority teachers

As an extension of the wish to establish their own schools as an alternative to what they see as the Christian-dominated and Anglocentric curricular diet of mainstream schools, advocates of 'separate' schools have also stressed the contingent benefits of ethnic minority children being taught by teachers who share the same religious and cultural background. We discuss in our Chapter on Teacher Education, later in this report, the importance attached by many ethnic minority groups to increasing the numbers of teachers from their own communities, and we have already mentioned, earlier in this chapter, the view taken by members of some faith communities that their religions can only be effectively taught by a teacher who is an adherent of that faith. It is also worth noting that some groups of Asian teachers to whom we have spoken, concerned about the influence which they see racism as having on their prospects of employment and promotion within the teaching profession, see the potential establishment of Sikh or Muslim schools as offering them the prospect of wider opportunities for career advancement free from such obstacles.

Response to racism

2.3 A further aspect of the case put forward by the Asian community for establishing its own schools is a response to the influence of racism. Since, as we have already observed, members of the Asian community in this country are subject to some of the most overt manifestations of racism which we have encountered, for example in the form of physical attacks on both pupils and their parents, it is understandable that they may despair of existing schools tackling the issue of racism and seek instead to insulate themselves from racism and to prepare their youngsters for its experience by establishing their own schools. On the broader level, several of the leading Muslim organisations with whom we have discussed the issue of 'separate' schools have suggested that they would offer a valuable means of fostering multiracial understanding by enabling children to become secure in their cultural and religious roots and to have a sense of morality and social responsibility. It is argued that the youngsters would thus not only be good citizens but would have a confident and balanced view of their place in this society, free from the sense of alienation which is experienced by certain other ethnic minorities.

'External' pressures

2.4 In addition to these issues which have formed the basis of the case put forward for the establishment of' 'separate' schools, it is also essential to acknowledge the extent to which factors external to the ethnic minority communities may have indirectly contributed to pressure for such schools. It is worth recalling here the background to the moves by the Sikh community in Southall to establish their own school, mentioned in paragraph 2.1, which we believe illustrates vividly how pressures from outside a community can help to fuel the belief that 'separate' schools are in fact the only option open to them. In 1979 the Church of England sought to purchase a multiracial county secondary school in the Southall area and their application was subsequently approved by the then Secretary of State. When the proposal was under consideration, the local Sikh community, which had many children at the school was extremely concerned at its implications, as illustrated by the following comments (38) by an Asian teacher at the school:

'It is seen as a tactic by white people to create a school for whites only, using the excuse that it is a Church of England School. We see it as a way of segregating us. The Asian community want the freedom to be able to go on sending their children to ... and the other schools. Obviously the parents would not particularly want to send their children to a school of another religion ... Once the school becomes an all white school there will be a strong demand to create a Sikh school. These moves for separate schools (NB a reference to the proposal for a Church of England School) are creating tensions. They go against the spirit of racial harmony. To create a Church of England School in Ealing now is to invite racial trouble.'

Particular concerns of the Muslim community

2.5 Turning to the case which has been put forward by some leading Muslim (39) organisations for the establishment of voluntary aided Muslim schools - which has been very much at the centre of the debate on 'separate' schools over the past year or so - we believe that the issues involved here are rather different from those raised by other communities in that they are very specifically related to adherence to Islamic religious and moral principles and represent a clear desire on the part of some members of the Muslim community to remove their children from existing schools. We have already referred to the bearing which the current worldwide resurgence of the Islamic faith appears to have had on the self-awareness and confidence of the Muslim community in this country. Much of the pressure for aided schools from the Muslim community can we believe be seen as a consequence of the moves to reaffirm adherence to Islamic principles in order to counter what is seen as the increasing 'westernisation' of Muslim children in this country. We have ourselves received a considerable volume of evidence from Muslim organisations, much of which has been concerned with the religious 'rights and duties' of Muslim parents and their children in an educational context, for example in relation to matters such as school uniform, school meals, physical education and religious instruction. Whilst in many cases the emphasis of the Muslim community's concerns has been on seeking to bring about changes in the policies and practices of existing schools in respect of such matters, it is noticeable that there is a growing tendency to take the view that no accommodation is in fact feasible or indeed desirable within the existing system and in order to provide a true Islamic education for their children, it is necessary to provide Muslim aided schools.

Influence of Islam

2.6 Whilst the reasons for some members of the Muslim community taking this line are to a certain extent similar to those put forward by other Asian communities, most notably frustration and dissatisfaction with the failure of existing schools in the past to recognise and respond to their concerns, over and above these common factors there seem to us to be differences in emphasis between the principles inherent in our education system and a strict interpretation of the aims of Islamic education. Much of the evidence which we have received in favour of Muslim schools stresses the need to create an Islamic ethos permeating every aspect of school life. The major aspiration of such a school is seen as educating children to be first and foremost 'good Muslims' and all other aspects of education being seen as of secondary concern. With regard to the treatment of religion, the emphasis in many of the submissions which we have received is, as we have already recalled in the first part of this chapter, on the need to instruct and confirm the pupils in their Islamic faith through a 'confessional' style approach and although it has been suggested that Muslim schools might admit some non-Muslim pupils the intention would still be to offer different religious groups instruction in their own religions.

Educational aspirations

2.7 In relation to the overall philosophy of education and how this is mediated through the hidden curriculum of the school, there seem to us to be obvious differences of emphasis between secular and religious approaches. Many of these differences of emphasis arise from the apparent irreconcilability of the requirements of a religion, which of its very nature influences every aspect of an individual's life, and the pressures of our secular society. It is widely accepted in this country that education should seek to encourage children to question, to criticise, to investigate, to challenge, to debate, to evaluate and to be able to make decisions and choices about their future adult lives. To some extent at least these objectives can however be seen as in conflict with a faith whose very essence is considered to lie in an acceptance of revelation and adherence to forms of behaviour and conduct. A 'conflict of interests' can therefore arise for adherents of other faiths or denominations, such as Roman Catholicism and Islam which deem certain 'truths' to be beyond doubt. The dilemma which this apparent conflict poses for Muslims in this country was described thus in evidence to us:

'A major worry for Muslim parents is the fact that their children soon begin to adopt English standards and ideas. They start to question not only traditional customs but religious ideas which seem to be strangely alien to life in a Western materialistic society. lslam is not something which can be learnt and adhered to overnight. It must be lived, breathed and fostered until it cannot be separated from life itself. It requires constant practice, and it is this fact that creates the dilemma for a Muslim parent in Britain today. Most Muslims acknowledge that Britain is a fair place to live, and in many ways they have come to depend upon it for their livelihood, but it is hard to judge how possible it is to live as a Muslim within the society as a whole.'

2.8 Where the concerns of the Muslim community about the 'welfare' of their children in relation to the requirements of their faith finds particular expression is in the specific calls which have been made for the establishment of single sex (40) Muslim schools. Indeed the fact that in the evidence which we have received the terms 'separate' and 'single sex' have tended to be used interchangeably and seen as synonymous is a measure of the extent to which concern about the education of Muslim girls lies at the heart of much of the debate on Muslim schools. Before considering this issue further we believe that it is important to recognise that the concept of a single sex school in the Muslim context differs in certain fundamental respects from the philosophy underlying existing single sex schools in the education system. Girls' schools in this country - apart from their pupil populations and to a lesser extent their teacher populations - have in practice differed little from coeducational schools in that the core curriculum has been the same and the same educational standards in terms of public examinations have been sought. Traditional 'girls' subjects' such as home economics have of course tended to be included in the curriculum at the expense of 'technical' boys' subjects but in recent years even this difference of emphasis has become less clearly defined with the greater acceptance in society as a whole of a broader role for women. From the statements which have been made by spokesmen of the Muslim community however, it is clear that the form of single sex education which at least some of them are advocating for girls would entail a far more central focus in the curriculum on education for marriage and motherhood in a particular Islamic sense, with other subjects receiving less attention and with the notion of careers education being seen as irrelevant to the pattern of adult life which the girls were likely to pursue.

2.9 Advocates of such a pattern of education for girls have argued that it would in no way represent a 'second class' education - on the contrary, rather than, as at present requiring girls to study subjects which are unimportant and have little relevance to their future lives, they claim it would give greater respect and recognition to the specific role which Muslim girls can be expected to fulfil within their community. We believe that the following extract from the booklet 'Islamic Education and Single Sex Schools' produced by the Union of Muslim Organisations of United Kingdom and Eire is worth quoting at some length here since it serves to illustrate this particular view of the arguments for and against coeducational and single sex schools in the Muslim context:

'Many of the arguments in favour of coeducational schools concern social behaviour. Let us look at some of the points for coeducation outlined in Mixed or Single Sex Schools? by RR Dale, and consider them in relation to Islamic injunctions.

1. 'It enables each sex to know and learn from the points of view of the other, contributing to better mutual understanding between the sexes and avoiding the rather immature attitude of the one sex to the other which is often found in the products of single sex schools.'

2. 'Life at home is living together of father and mother sons and daughters. A coeducational schools is an extension of life at home and can serve as an apprenticeship to becoming an understanding member of society.'

3. 'The best type of school is that which is a microcosm incorporating within it the essential features of life in the world outside. Segregation of sexes is purely artificial. Education cannot claim to be a training for life unless it prepares the child to take his place naturally in the community of men and women.'

4. 'The two sexes have an ameliorating effect on the conduct of each other, restraining the extremes of conduct, the boys losing some of their boisterous rudeness and the girls becoming less giggly, simpering, catty.'

5. 'Friendly rivalry between the two sexes on the standard of work - boys tend to raise the standard of girls in certain subjects, e.g. Mathematics and Science.'

6. 'There was a lightness which took away much of the drudgery from teaching.'

Such schools produce an 'atmosphere' and evoke such phrases as 'joie de vivre'; 'gaiety'.

Arguments in favour of coeducational schools on these social aspects would seem to be opposed to basic Islamic principles. Islamic teaching has rejected the idea of free intercourse between the sexes and has encouraged the purity and innocence of adolescence. Segregation of the sexes has been encouraged in Islam and not at all regarded as artificial. A woman is encouraged at all times to behave modestly before men, and not to seek to outrival them in masculine pursuits. It is the job of the home and loving parents, not the school, to develop social awareness and moral judgement.

On the other hand, many arguments against the coeducational school have complete affinity with Islamic principles.

'Different rates of intellectual development of the sexes'; 'different interests'; 'work suffering from distraction'; 'the bad effect of competition on girls' are all linked with the insistence in Islam that women must play a different role to men, and develop her feminine qualities rather than merely imitate men, so becoming only a second rate citizen with no real authority in either the home or in the world outside the home.

Mohammed Mazheruddin Siddiqui, in his 'Women in Islam'; questions the basis of coeducation thus:

'Coeducation is based on the assumption that there are no psychological and temperamental differences of any great consequence between man and woman, that after completing their education they have to pursue like careers and enter identical spheres of activity and that no sexual aberrations are likely to occur from the herding together of boys and girls in the same institution, or if they do occur, their consequences for the stability of the family, the happiness of married life and the general character formation of men and women are not serious enough to warrant social condemnation.'

And concludes thus:

'The most vital defect of coeducation from the point of view of female nature and women's special functions in society, is that it prevents the training of women for motherhood. How can a common educational institution run alike for the boys and the girls make adequate provision for training women in those arts and branches of knowledge which are necessary for her future life as a mother? Education for motherhood is the crying need of the world today ... When the whole curriculum of girls is hopelessly congested with subjects on the line of boys which cost them their mental equilibrium and physical health, their essential function in life is allowed to pass on in ignorance.'

Of course, there are those boys and girls who will study anywhere and not be influenced but they are in the minority, and for the sake of the majority who are prone to human weakness it would make more sense to believe that "prevention is better than cure".'

Decline in single sex provision

2.10 As in the case of 'separate' schools in general, there seems also to be a strong possibility that factors outside the Muslim community have served to give added impetus to calls for the maintenance and establishment of single sex schools. One of the major changes which has taken place in the education system over the last 10 to 15 years has been the decline (41) in the number of single sex schools, with many such schools having been replaced by, or amalgamated to form, coeducational schools. This move from single sex to coeducational provision seems not to have been as the result of any major policy decision on the part of the government of the day but rather to have come about largely as a natural concomitant of the reorganisation of secondary education on comprehensive lines which inter alia was thought to necessitate fewer and larger schools. Once established, this trend has continued and we believe that it is perhaps more than a coincidence that the secondary school which Muslim parents in Bradford sought to purchase (see paragraph 2.1 above) was the only remaining girls' school in the authority and that there had been plans to amalgamate it with the adjacent boys' school. Whilst the move away from single sex education has come about entirely independent of issues relating to the education of ethnic minority children it is clear from this that its consequences bear particularly directly on the interests of the Muslim community. It is certainly evident that reducing and in some cases perhaps removing the option available for parents wishing, for whatever reasons, their children and particularly their daughter to be educated in a single sex environment, can be of especial concern to a community where some parents, as we have seen, have particularly strong views on the education of girls. It may well be therefore that moves away from single sex provision by local education authorities with Muslim populations have served to add weight and urgency to the pressure from these communities to establish their own voluntary aided schools in the belief that this is the only way of preserving the option of single sex education for their children.

Our conclusions

2.11 Throughout this report we have argued for all pupils to share a common educational experience which prepares them for life in a truly pluralist society. We have stressed that, to achieve this aim, all schools, both multiracial schools and those with few or no ethnic minority pupils, will need to reappraise their curricular provision and the attitudes and assumptions which underlie their work, in order to challenge and indeed overcome the 'barriers', whether physical or psychological, which at present exist between the majority and minority communities in our society. We firmly believe that if the message of this report is accepted by schools and the changes in perspective and emphasis which we have advocated - particularly in relation to religious education, 'pastoral' concerns and language needs - are realised, then this will go a considerable way towards meeting the concerns of many ethnic minority parents about their children's education and that many of the particular concerns which have led sections of the Asian community to call for the establishment of their own schools would also be allayed. If schools were seen by parents to be offering a more broadly-based curriculum, which reflected the multiracial, multilingual and multifaith nature of Britain today we feel this would counter many of the anxieties which have been expressed. If ethnic minority parents were able to exercise some direct influence themselves over policy development. and decision making, through greater involvement in governing bodies, this would also, we feel, enhance their confidence in existing schools. Similarly if teachers showed themselves willing to cooperate in a positive way with community-based activities and to respond sensitively to pastoral concerns and to take effective action to tackle all manifestations of racism, whether overt or covert, we believe that much of the mistrust and frustration which lies behind arguments for an alternative to existing schools would be overcome.

2.12 Whilst we fully appreciate the concerns which have led some sections of the Asian community to press for the establishment of their own schools, we do not believe that creating an artificially separate situation in which groups of children are taught exclusively by teachers from the same ethnic group is desirable from the point of view of the children, the minority community or society as a whole and we are not therefore convinced that 'separate' schools can be supported on these grounds. Within our philosophy of 'Education for All' we have stressed the role which we see all teachers having in understanding and meeting the needs of all pupils, whether from minority or majority communities, and in addition the particular role which ethnic minority teachers may play in certain situations where they are able to draw on their own experience in supporting children for whom English is not a first language or in pastoral care situations requiring insight into the particular concerns of certain parents for their children. Despite the clearly deeply felt case put forward by many community representatives in evidence to us, we consider that, on the basis of present evidence, the best and perhaps the only way of ensuring that ethnic minority communities in this country are able both to retain their religious, cultural and linguistic heritages, as well as being accorded full equality alongside members of the majority community, is within the broader pluralist context for which we have argued in this report. In many respects we feel that the establishment of 'separate' schools could well fail to tackle many of the underlying concerns of the communities and might also exacerbate the very feelings of rejection and of not being accepted as full members of our society, which they were seeking to overcome. By in effect constituting a real and physical manifestation of the psychological barriers and divisions which undoubtedly do exist in our society we believe they might well serve to reinforce and extend these rather than, as we would wish, help to remove them.

Arguments against 'separate' provision

2.13 In view of our overall aim of all schools offering a full education for all our children it is hardly surprising that we find we cannot favour a 'solution' to the supposed 'problems' which ethnic minority communities face, which tacitly seems to accept that these 'problems' are beyond the capacity and imagination of existing schools to meet and that the only answer is therefore to provide 'alternative' schools for ethnic minority pupils thus in effect absolving existing schools from even making the attempt to reappraise and revise their practices. Throughout this report we stress our misgivings about the implications and consequences of 'separate' provision of any kind, explicitly catering for ethnic minority group pupils. As we have already observed, there is little hope of remedying the inaccurate and misleading stereotypes of ethnic minority groups which persist in the minds of the majority community - an essential element in racism as a whole - by simply seeking to remove some ethnic minority pupils from existing schools thus leaving the educational and social experience of the remaining pupils, both minority and majority, impoverished accordingly.

2.14 As far as the physical security of ethnic minority youngsters is concerned, whilst they may be safer from racial attacks in a 'separate' school, the very existence of a visibly identifiable 'Asian' school may serve to polarise the attitudes of members of other communities in the area. There will inevitably still be occasions when youngsters from different groups will come into contact with each other - for example travelling to and from school - and if they have had little other experience of meeting one another, then the scope for interracial misunderstanding and tension is surely greater and the experience of the racism which the Asian pupils may then face, all the more traumatic for its unexpectedness and their unpreparedness. There is a clear recognition of this inherent risk in pursuing calls for 'separate' schools in the following observations made by the President of the National Association of Asian Youth in a newspaper article (42):

'Even if a separate Muslim school can give a good grounding in Islam, it can in one way prepare the pupils for living in a multicultural, multiracial society. How are they to relate to, for example, a skinhead, a West Indian, an elderly white lady? How are they to learn to cope with unemployment? If they really want to live as a separate colony, why don't they go back and live in that system? Religiously and culturally they may consider themselves better off, but they'll be at the bottom of the ladder in every other respect in the wider community - where the pressure is likely to increase. They'll just play into the hands of the right-wingers and fascists who say "let them have separatism, but not at our expense". If they have separate schools which instil an exclusive culture, religion and education, what aspect of their life will be relevant to the community? They will have no ability to understand or do anything about issues of common concern. Politically they'll be on the lo