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Spens (1938) Notes on the text
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The Spens Report (1938)
Secondary education with special reference to grammar schools and technical high schools London: HM Stationery Office
Chapter 11 Summary of principal conclusions, suggestions and recommendations
Our conclusions and recommendations are as follows: 1. The training and education given in the endowed grammar schools, local and non-local, down to the passing of the Grammar School Act 1840, was originally vocational, since the instruction in the trivium, which the grammar school professed to give, was preparatory to and inextricably connected with the instruction in the quadrivium which, in theory at any rate, was given at the university. The general training in the seven arts or sciences was regarded as the indispensable foundation for the specialised studies in the superior faculties of medieval universities. The grammar schools were thus institutions preparatory to the universities, but in course of time the original aims of their curriculum were to a great extent forgotten and the education which they gave, largely based on the classics, especially Latin (1), was regarded in itself as a 'liberal education'. (Chapter 1, Sections 2, 3, 4 and 9; Appendix II.) 2. The grammar schools, local and non-local, have hitherto been regarded as the standard type of higher school in England and Wales, partly because of their intimate connection with the ancient universities of Oxford and Cambridge, partly because they were endowed foundations. (Chapter 1, Sections 37, 38 and 43.) 3. In the sixteenth and still more in the seventeenth century it became evident that only a minority of the pupils did in fact proceed to the universities, and it is significant that the statutes of some grammar schools founded or further endowed in the seventeenth century contain provisions for binding some of the grammar school pupils to a trade. The distinction between the so-called liberal education given by grammar schools which consisted chiefly in the study of Latin literature and particularly Latin grammar, and the contemporary system of apprenticeship, which corresponded broadly to the technical education of modern times, was thus by no means so definite as is often supposed. (Chapter 1, Section 4.) 4. In the second part of the eighteenth century and during the nineteenth century the public schools added considerably to the traditional curriculum based on the classics and evolved, largely unconsciously, the idea of a general liberal education, which was vaguely conceived as affording a preparation for the liberal professions. The great reputation and position of these schools led to an exceptional prestige being attached to this conception of a general liberal education, as distinct from any form of secondary (higher) education based largely on technical or quasi-vocational studies directed towards industry, commerce or agriculture. (Chapter 1, Sections 8, 10 and Appendix II.) 5. Many attempts were made in private and unendowed schools to develop types of curriculum which corresponded more nearly with the requirements of contemporary life. This tendency may be traced in the Nonconformist academies of the seventeenth century, in the commercial academies and commercial schools established by private effort in many of the towns during the eighteenth century, in the proprietary schools and the middle class schools founded in the middle decades of the last century, in the higher grade schools established by a number of school boards from about 1875, and in the organised science schools conducted under the auspices of the Department of Science and Art. Nevertheless, partly owing to the fact that most of these schools were not endowed institutions, schools providing newer types of curriculum were not always able to acquire in popular esteem the prestige and respect attaching to the public schools and the endowed grammar schools. (Chapter 1, Sections 8, 11, 13, 14, 26 and 36.) 6. Extensive traces of this phase in the development of ideas about education still survive in the latent prejudice against technical or quasi-vocational studies and in the great prestige which still in many quarters attaches to the academic curriculum in the widest sense, as distinct from handicraft and those studies which have some more direct bearing on industry, commerce and agriculture. (Chapter 1, Sections 31, 37, 40, 45, and passim.) 7. From the date of the publication of the Second Report of the Royal Commission on Technical Instruction in 1884, well-informed educational opinion in England and Wales was disposed to hold the concepts of technical education and secondary education in close association. This tendency found expression in the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889, which contains definitions of intermediate and technical education, and in the Technical Instruction Act 1889. The theory underlying this view is clearly stated in a passage of the Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, 1895, which we quote in full in Chapter 1, Section 31. (Chapter 1, Sections 28 to 33.) 8. This point of view was not taken into account in the Regulations for Secondary Schools for 1904-5, in which great stress was laid on the provision of general courses for boys and girls between the ages of 11 or 12 and 16 or 17, and in which any specialisation of a vocational character at this stage was discouraged. These Regulations thus introduced an unnecessary and unreal cleavage between secondary and technical education. (Chapter 1, Sections 37 and 38.) 9. Although there had been many suggestive and fertile experiments in the direction of developing other types of secondary education, such as commercial schools, quasi-vocational schools, technical schools etc, the force of tradition was so great that, when, under the Education Act 1902, the state undertook for the first time the general organisation of secondary schools, the ancient grammar school, local or non-local, was taken as almost the exclusive model for secondary schools. This was perhaps almost inevitable, but we consider it unfortunate that little or no attempt was made at this stage in the development of secondary education to foster the provision of secondary schools of technical or quasi-vocational character. (Chapter 1, Sections 37 to 38.) 10. In 1913 the Board receded from their policy of encouraging purely general courses and, by allowing within reasonable limits some specialisation and incipient vocational work for pupils below the age of 16 in the middle school, reverted to the point of view expressed in the Report of the Royal Commission on Secondary Education, 1895. (Chapter 1, Section 40.) 11. The encouragement given to incipient vocational work for pupils below the age of 16 in the Board's Memorandum on Curricula (Circular 826, 1913) had little effect in checking the tendency to uniformity in the general curriculum for the middle part of grammar schools which had been becoming more and more marked since the issue of the Regulations for Secondary Schools in 1904. This tendency was greatly reinforced and consolidated by the arrangements adopted in 1917 for the organisation of the First School (Certificate) Examination. In general, three main influences, which have combined to produce uniformity in the curriculum for pupils below the age of 16 in most secondary schools, may be distinguished, viz: (a) The prestige of the public schools and grammar schools which has tended to assimilate the newer types of Secondary School and particularly those maintained or aided by local education authorities to the traditional grammar school type;12. In the last three decades the traditional views about the academic grammar school curriculum have been considerably modified by the development of at least two main types of non-academic secondary education, namely the curricula which are being evolved in modern (senior) schools, for pupils above the age of 11+ in accordance with the suggestions in our Report on The Education of the Adolescent (1926) and the realistic curriculum which has been developed in junior technical schools for boys associated with the engineering and building industries. It is being realised that it is possible to develop types of secondary (post-primary) education of high educative value on non-academic lines with a certain bearing, more or less direct, on industry, commerce, and agriculture. (Chapter 1, Section 45 and Note at the end of the chapter.) 13. We are of opinion that the present difficulties in the field of secondary education have arisen largely out of the confusion which began about 1904 between a type of post-primary education appropriate to the needs of boys and girls between the ages of 11-12 and 16-17 and the traditional academic course directed towards the universities. (Chapter 1, Section 38.) 14. A careful study of the development of secondary education in England and Wales, particularly since 1900, and an examination of the present position as revealed by the statistics summarised in Chapter 2 (which show a striking disparity between the provision for secondary education of an academic type and that for whole-time junior technical education) leave us with the general impression that the existing arrangements for the whole-time higher education of boys and girls above the age of 11+ in England and Wales have ceased to correspond with the actual structure of modern society and with the economic facts of the situation. (Chapters 1 and 2 passim.) Skeletal growth during puberty and adolescence 15. Since the growth and union of the different bones at the elbow, shoulder, forearm, and other parts of the human body is not complete till between the ages of 16 and 19, we consider that no adolescent should be allowed to do heavy continuous muscular work either in or out of school, particularly if it involves postural fatigue. Great care should be taken to ensure that children do not overtax their strength in the school garden or at the work bench. It is evident also that the known facts about bone growth should be borne in mind in arranging games and physical exercises for boys and girls at this age period. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 3.) Liability to spinal curvature 16. Since children above the age of 11 are rather liable to various forms of spinal curvature, and since fatigue plays an important part in aggravating any tendency to such curvature, we recommend that the importance of adequate rest in a suitable position should receive careful consideration. We would stress the importance of maintaining a good posture in writing, and in typewriting; and the necessity of providing, for typewriting especially, appropriate modern equipment with skilled supervision. Like considerations apply to the equipment of domestic science rooms, in which stools of variable height or fitted with adjustable backs, and footrests, should be supplied for needlework lessons. Similar arrangements should be made in laboratories to meet the needs of pupils of varying heights. (Chapter 3, Part I, Sections 4 and 5.) 17. Since the form of curvature resulting in bent and twisted back known as scoliosis, may be induced or aggravated by carrying on the arms heavy satchels and overcoats to and from school or, among girls, by performing domestic duties which involve carrying heavy weights on one side of the body, we recommend that care should be taken not to allow adolescent children to carry habitually unduly heavy weights. We are strongly of opinion that the parents of girls in secondary schools should not expect of them any undue amount of domestic work in the home. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 5.) Glandular disturbances at puberty 18. In view of the glandular disturbances which are apt to occur at puberty, we consider that teachers should bear in mind that self-control is comparatively easy for some children but very difficult for others, and that such differences may have a physical basis for which the individual child is not wholly responsible. Since the physical and mental changes which take place in boys and girls at puberty may impose a certain amount of strain, we strongly recommend that special attention should be directed during adolescence towards the provision of a liberal dietary, and well balanced periods for exercise, rest and sleep. (Chapter 3, Part I, Sections 6 and 7.) The after-effects of acute rheumatism 19. Since the available statistics indicate that a considerable proportion of children in the age group 10 to 14 suffer from rheumatic fever or its effects, we suggest that parents and teachers should bear in mind that so-called 'growing pains' may in some cases be a manifestation of this disease in a sub-acute form. Teachers and parents may play a most helpful part by ensuring compliance with medical advice as to the physical activities which may safely and appropriately be undertaken by a child who has had an attack of rheumatic fever and has then returned to school, possibly with a damaged heart. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 8.) Medical inspection and treatment in grammar schools 20. For the reasons stated in Section 9 of Chapter 3, we are strongly of opinion that the practice of providing medical, including dental, treatment for pupils in grammar (secondary) schools should now be made universal. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 9.) Systematic inquiries by school medical officers 21. We consider that the work of the medical officers who inspect pupils in grammar schools might be made more fruitful in its results if inquiries of wider scope were undertaken on various important matters affecting the health and well-being of pupils, such as those mentioned in Section 9 of Chapter 3. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 9.) School dinners 22. We think it desirable that pupils in grammar schools maintained or aided by the local authority should be able to obtain midday meals at a moderate charge, and that in arranging the dietary for such meals the school medical staff should be consulted, as is already the case in some areas. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 9.) 23. To this end adequate dining rooms and kitchens with modern labour saving equipment should be provided in grammar schools, and the arrangements for the meals should be placed under expert supervision. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 9.) Physical and mental fatigue 24. We consider that the question of physical and mental fatigue in boys and girls between the ages of 11+ and 16+ merits special attention, and we suggest that medical officers should be encouraged, in consultation with the teachers, to consider and report on any evidence of physical or mental strain occurring in the course of school work, including homework. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 9.) 25. We recommend that means should be taken to ensure that, so far as possible, teachers are enabled to refer suspected cases of strain, whether mental or physical, to school medical officers as soon as they are observed instead of waiting for a routine inspection. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 9.) 26. We think that tactful and sympathetic inquiry is particularly needed in regard to many children who undergo added strain on account of poverty or unfavourable housing conditions, or by reason of undue pressure exercised by ambitious parents. In such cases, the suggestions of the school medical staff may more readily be acted upon when close contact is maintained with the parents by periodical conferences, parents' days, and parents' associations. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 9.) Physical exercises and games 27. We suggest that systematic inquiries should be undertaken with a view to ascertaining what physical exercises and games are most appropriate for boys and girls at successive stages between the ages of 11+ and 16+ in schools of different types, with special reference to the peculiar needs of day pupils who have to travel considerable distances to and from school. (Chapter 3, Part I, Section 9.) The general character of adolescence 28. Adolescence or puberty is now regarded by psychologists not as a sudden interruption overtaking all children at the same age, but rather as the culmination of a slow process of growth which has been proceeding steadily from birth at varying rates in different individuals. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 10.) 29. Many of the apparently new characteristics of children at the adolescent stage are to a great extent induced by external changes in the scholastic, domestic and economic conditions affecting the individual child. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 10.) 30. The mental changes and modifications of character which occur at the adolescent period are now regarded as being mainly due to the maturing of the sex glands. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 10.) Mental characteristics; The faculty psychology 31. The theory that the salient feature in mental development was the successive emergence of specific intellectual faculties - sense, movement, speech, memory, imagination, reasoning - each appearing at fairly definite periods, has now been generally abandoned, and much doubt has been thrown on the view that the mind as a whole and its several intellectual faculties can be trained merely by exercising them. We now regard education as consisting in the development of specific habits, memories, ideas, forms of manual and mental skill, intellectual interests, moral ideals, and a knowledge of methods as well as of mere facts and conclusions. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 11; Appendix IV.) 32. Recent research indicates that intellectual growth in general and in its more specific aspects is not spasmodic but fairly uniform up to the time that development ceases. Even when individual children appear to display new talents or special gifts at a fairly definite date, it is probable that such changes are the outcome of emotional rather than intellectual causes, being due to the acquisition of new interests rather than to the emergence of fresh aptitudes. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 11.) General intelligence 33. Intellectual development during childhood appears to progress as if it were governed largely by a single central factor, usually known as 'general intelligence', which may be broadly described as innate all-round intellectual ability. It appears to enter into everything which the child attempts to think or say or do, and seems on the whole to be the most important factor in determining his work in the classroom. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 12.) Intellectual characteristics 34. The most noticeable feature of the period after the age of 11 on the intellectual side is the gradual retardation from about the age of 12 in the development of 'general intelligence' as measured by psychological tests. The average child appears to attain the effective limit of development between the ages of 16 and 18. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 12.) 35. Psychologists claim that it is possible at a very early age to predict with some degree of accuracy the ultimate level of a child's general intelligence, but this holds good only of general intelligence and not of specific aptitudes or interests. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 12.) 36. Modern psychology stresses the wide individual differences in intellectual and emotional characteristics. One child differs from another far more than is generally supposed, and the notion that every normal child follows the same general course of development is mistaken. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 12.) 37. Since the ratio of each child's mental age to his chronological age remains approximately the same, while his chronological age increases, the mental differences between one child and another will grow larger and larger and will reach a maximum during adolescence. It is accordingly evident that different children from the age of 11, if justice is to be done to their varying capacities, require types of education varying in certain important respects. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 12.) Motor capacities 38. Towards puberty there is frequently a definite deterioration in nicety of control, due partly to physical causes and partly to a definite increase in nervous and emotional instability at early adolescence, which shows itself in a temporary decline in neuromuscular coordination. The growing boy suffers most in this respect, the growing girl usually to a less degree. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 13.) Sensory capacities: vision: hearing 39. Though there seems to be little or no change in the sense organs themselves between the ages of 11 and 16, myopia or short sight appears to become more common. The power of listening appears to improve at this period, and there is definite progress in the ability of the ordinary child to concentrate on pure hearing with little or no aid from the more concrete sense of sight. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 14.) Attention 40. The most striking development in mental power in children at this age period is the increasing scope of their attention. The development of attention seems to depend largely on the development of general intelligence. This increasing range of concentration has an evident bearing on the organisation of the timetable and on the length and complexity of the tasks that may appropriately be set. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 15.) Memory 41. The development in the scope of attention brings with it a corresponding increase in capacity to learn and remember. Mere mechanical retentiveness in memory seems to reach its maximum by the age of 11, but the power of intelligent recollection goes on increasing. Older children are accordingly less disposed to rely on mere mechanisation, and dislike drudgery and drill, preferring to base their power of recollection on interest and comprehension. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 16.) Imagery: reproductive imagination 42. Not only the strength but also the type of memory seems definitely to change after the age of 11. Up to that age the memory of the average child is concrete rather than verbal. By the age of 11 as the result of listening, reading and trying to express himself through speech and writing, the pupil has acquired the capacity to formulate his ideas to himself more concisely in language instead of thinking in the old inadequate fashion by means of mental pictures. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 17.) 43. As adolescence advances, there is often a revival in the vividness of imagery. There is accordingly both a possibility and a need for training and disciplining the imagination at this stage of development. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 17.) Reasoning 44. Reasoning is essentially dependent upon the power to perceive relations and to relate those relations to each other, so as to form a coherent and consistent system. By the age of 9 or 10 the average child can deal to some extent with spatial relations. The power to argue logically about time relations develops rather later, and causal relations are not clearly understood, as a rule, till about the age of 13 or 14. Owing to their increased power of dealing with verbal concepts, older children become more capable of abstract thought and inference. We agree with many of our witnesses in thinking that the reasoning capacities of children are rather underestimated by current methods of education. Logical reasoning should be regarded as a technique that can be taught. We accordingly consider that it is most important to foster and encourage systematic and accurate thinking in all types of school, and to give the pupils ideas of proof and of systematic discovery and experiment. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 18.) 45. For the reasons stated in Section 13 of Chapter 3, we urge that children should, so far as possible, be trained at school to think and reason for themselves, in order that they may be in a position as adults to examine critically and objectively the many forms of mass suggestion which will inevitably meet them in later life. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 18.) 46. While we fully recognise that it is desirable that children should be encouraged to reflect about political, social and economic problems, we think on the whole that their capacity to deal effectively with these problems in later life can best be trained, on the one hand by encouraging them to take an intelligent interest in problems which arise in the ordinary life and work of the school, and on the other hand by inculcating the need for a similar attitude in later life. The habit of independent judgement may be fostered by providing them at school with suitable opportunities of thinking and reasoning for themselves. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 18.) Formal training and transfer of training 47. The doctrine of formal training, like the doctrine of the faculties with which it was closely associated, has been subjected to severe criticism by practical teachers and by psychologists. The current view may be broadly summarised as follows: transfer of improvement occurs only when there are common usable elements, shared both by the activity used for the training and also by the activity in which the results of that training reappear. The more the influenced and the influencing activities resemble one another, the greater the influence is likely to be. Transfer of training appears to be much less certain and less widely spread than was formerly believed. (2) (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 19; Appendix V.) Emotional development General emotional characteristics 48. The most salient characteristics of puberty are changes not so much in intellect and aptitude, as in character and temperament. The simpler or primary emotions seem to be most directly affected, and these are now known to be closely dependent on glandular secretions. The final maturing of the glandular system is accompanied by noticeable changes in feeling and impulse. It is most important that teachers and parents should realise the wide differences between one child and another both in detailed knowledge and in specific emotion, and the dangers which may arise if every pupil be treated alike. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 20.) Social impulses 49. Since the social impulses or instincts develop rapidly about the age of 12 or 13, the period of adolescence is the most appropriate time for organising cooperative work in classrooms and outside, and for enrolling boys and girls as members of some team or club if this has not previously been done. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 21.) Self-assertion and submission 50. Since the instincts of self-assertion and self-submission, and the corresponding emotions which may be broadly described as pride and humility, usually develop in boys and girls at this stage, parents and teachers cannot expect the same degree of blind obedience or frank confidence that they have hitherto received. Children at this 'awkward age' should be treated more and more as equals and as adults; as far as possible outlets should be provided for their new impulses and in school every reasonable opportunity should be afforded for initiative and independent work. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 22.) Curiosity and other self-assertive impulses 51. We consider that the group of impulses broadly described as curiosity which emerge at this period may offer a powerful handle for intellectual instruction. If curiosity be encouraged rather than repressed, then the pupil's own insistent questions and inquiries may often furnish valuable hints for the lines which school instruction and school methods may usefully follow. This is one reason for applying a heuristic procedure within reasonable limits to the principal subjects of the curriculum. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 23.) Depressive emotions 52. All the emotions, inhibitive as well as aggressive, are strengthened at this point of development. The instincts and feelings mentioned above manifest themselves more or less openly, but there are others which show themselves in less obvious ways. Side by side with a self-assertive display of power and vanity there is often present a secret feeling of humility and a certain sense of inferiority associated with fresh fears and fresh capacities for disgust. We would suggest that teachers should be on the watch for symptoms of these depressive emotions and should take appropriate steps to prevent children from becoming unduly shy, reticent, awkward and even neurotic. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 24.) The apparent inconsistencies of adolescents 53. The essential characteristic of adolescence is a strong intensification of emotional energy with a temporary tendency to mental disorganisation. The child's impulses towards action are for the time being stronger than his powers of intelligent control. We accordingly suggest that the unbalanced attitude of some children at this stage should be treated with tact and sympathy, since the tendencies to wild irresponsible behaviour usually disappear as the individual child settles down towards the close of adolescence. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 25.) Self-consciousness 54. A new and very varied self-consciousness is one of the most salient characteristics of adolescent boys and girls, and we would point out that it provides one of the most ready means for moulding their moral character. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 26.) Heredity and environmental influences 55. While we think that due account should be taken by teachers and parents of the special factors mentioned above which arise in adolescence and affect the character, we recognise that the most important influences, such as heredity and social environment, are not specially connected with adolescence. Moreover, faults of character do not cease to have a moral significance because they are intensified by the special conditions which arise at adolescence and by other factors. (Chapter 3, Part II, Section 27.) 56. Schools of every type fulfil their proper purpose in so far as they foster the free growth of individuality, helping every boy and girl to achieve the highest degree of individual development of which he or she is capable in and through the life of a society. (Chapter 4, Part II, Section 12.) 57. The national tradition must be the basis of an effective education. (Chapter 4, Part II, Section 13.) 58. The prime duty of a school providing secondary education is to cater for the needs of children who are entering and passing through the stage of adolescence, giving the pre-adolescent and adolescent years a life which answers to their special needs and brings out their special values. (Chapter 4, Part II, Section 11 and Part III, Section 24.) 59. The curriculum should be thought of in terms of activity and experience rather than of knowledge to be acquired and facts to be stored. (Chapter 4, Part II, Section 13.) 60. Both the conservative and creative elements in the activities of the community must be represented in the curriculum and a larger share must be found for those activities which are creative. (Chapter 4, Part II, Section 15.) 61. The studies of schools providing secondary education should be brought into closer contact than at present with the practical affairs of life. (Chapter 4, Part II, Section 18.) 62. While studies should not be introduced which are beyond the present comprehension and unrelated to the present experience of pupils, yet, especially towards the end of the course, studies may well be introduced to a limited extent which have a definite bearing on the next stage of their life. (Chapter 4, Part II, Section 13.) 63. A 'tutorial system' should be widely tried in all types of schools providing secondary education. (Chapter 4, Part V, Section 53.) 64. We recommend the growing practice in large schools of including on the staff a careers master. (Chapter 4, Part V, Section 53.) Conclusions and recommendations with special reference to grammar (secondary) schools 65. grammar schools should continue to provide a suitable education for boys and girls who are likely to proceed to a university. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 22.) 66. The sixth form is the most characteristic and most valuable feature in a grammar school in the training of character and a sense of responsibility; the grammar school tradition depends on its existence. The tendency of pupils, other than those preparing for the university, to remain longer at school should be encouraged by the extension of courses for pupils who are not going on to the university, and wide liberty should be left to schools in the choice and arrangement of these courses. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 22.) (3) 67. The School Certificate examination dominates the curriculum unduly. It should follow the curriculum, not determine it. (Chapter 4, Part I, Section 4, and Part III, Section 44.) (4) The curriculum of grammar schools 68. Grammar schools should continue to offer opportunities for instruction in all the subjects laid down in the official Regulations for Secondary Schools, Regulation 7. This does not mean that all pupils must study all these subjects at the same time, or for the whole of their school life. (Chapter 4, Part I, Section 2, Part II, Section 15, Part III, Sections 20, 30 and 43.) 69. As much freedom as possible should be left to schools in the selection of studies and in their content. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 25). 70. In all grammar schools, all the pupils should, for the first two years after entry, i.e. up to the age of about 13½, follow a curriculum which contains English subjects (including English itself, Scripture, history, geography), mathematics, science, music, art, handicraft or domestic science and physical education, and in addition one foreign language. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 40.) (5) 71. At the end of the second year, each school should make a careful review of its pupils in the light of what has been observed of their progress, tastes and general development during the two preceding years. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 40.) (6) 72. In the third and later years, schools should be allowed to reduce the number of subjects studied at any one time, provided these include English, some science (or mathematics) and in most cases one foreign language. The content of school mathematics should be reduced, and the course in science simplified, and greater variation in the level to which other subjects are carried should be accepted in the School Certificate examination. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 43). 73. Each school should adopt a unifying principle in its curriculum, and this should be found in the teaching of English and the other English subjects. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 31.) 74. The study of specified books in English literature should no longer be prescribed in the School Certificate examination. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 32.) 75. All pupils should be given the chance of learning at least one foreign language. In the first year of the study of a foreign language it should receive as much as one lesson a day, and those who, after a fair trial, show no signs of an aptitude for linguistic studies should be allowed to drop it. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 33.) 76. All pupils whose taste and aptitude justify the study of a second foreign language should begin this about a year after taking up the first. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 34.) 77. Latin should be so taught that something definite is gained by the pupils who do not continue it after the age of 16. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 34.) 78. School mathematics should be taught as one of the main lines which the creative spirit of man has followed in its development. If it be taught with this purpose it will be no longer necessary to devote the number of hours to the subject that are now generally assumed to be necessary. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 35.) 79. The common practice of concentrating from the beginning on a systematic study of particular sciences lays too early a stress on abstract theory and too little on the earlier phases of 'romance' and 'utility', and is not the best approach to science for adolescent pupils. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 36.) 80. Physical education should receive greater emphasis in the curriculum and a larger share in the timetable. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 28.) 81. A more prominent and established place in the ordinary curriculum of schools both for boys and girls should be assigned to aesthetic subjects, including music, art, and other forms of aesthetic training, and special attention should be paid to developing the capacity for artistic appreciation as distinct from executive skill. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 29.) 82. Scripture should be taught primarily with a view to the understanding of what the various books of the Bible were in fact intended to mean by their authors for their original readers. (7) (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 27.) Specialisation of a vocational character 83. Preparation for a vocation is an important part of education, but any specialised training of a vocational character should come towards the end of school life. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 37.) 84. In areas in which many pupils leave at, or shortly before the age of 16 to obtain clerical posts in industry and commerce, opportunities to acquire the mechanical skills of typewriting and shorthand should be given them after the age of 15. It is essential that such training should be given with an equipment and accommodation that do not fall below the standard required for other subjects, and by teachers of equivalent qualifications. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 37.) 85. Economics as a specific subject should not be included as a separate subject of the curriculum before the age of 16. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 38.) Formal instruction 86. The timetable should not be filled with periods of formal instruction. (Chapter 4, Part III, Section 43.) Homework 87. No homework should be set to junior forms in which the majority of the pupils are under 11; less should be required of the younger forms than of the older; and the quota set for the weekend should not exceed that set on the other days of the week. (Chapter 3, Part III, Section 39.) Corporate activities 88. Organised activities should not occupy the whole of the hours that are spent outside the classroom. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 51.) 89. The internal organisation of the corporate life of a school for specific purposes should be left to the pupils, even though it can be done more easily by the staff. (Chapter 4, Part V, Section 51.) The country grammar school 90. We recommend that the country grammar school should take full advantage of the opportunities afforded by its rural environment in framing syllabuses which have a high practical value derived from their close affinity to the world outside the school. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 45.) 91. The school garden and orchard, and a little land on which some livestock, such as bees and poultry, may be kept, are the outdoor laboratories of the country grammar school. We consider it essential for their proper maintenance as an integral part of the science accommodation of the school that there should be some hired labour for routine manual work. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 46.) 92. We hold that all secondary schools should follow a similar curriculum for the first two years of their course. (8) We are not disposed to make any exception for the country grammar school in the framework of the curriculum for these years. In the third year the difference will be mainly one of emphasis, and may affect the periods allocated to the various subjects rather than the treatment of those subjects. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 46.) (i) Local survey In addition to the practical work mentioned in Recommendation 91, we think that special prominence should be assigned in the curriculum to the local survey, which might well serve as the basis of much of the teaching both in geography and in history. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 46.) (ii) Arithmetic and simple geometry may be studied in country grammar schools in their more practical aspects. Calculations might be based on the work of the farm, and geometry should include the measurement of gradients and simple surveying. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 47.) (iii) Science The broad outlines of the curriculum in general science admit of adaptation to meet the special requirements of country schools. We desire particularly to emphasise the need for more biological teaching. We consider that biology is a fundamental element in any course of science teaching judged to be suitable for a rural school: not only because of its practical application to the problems of plant and animal life, but also because a knowledge of biology creates a fresh consciousness and appreciation of the manifold interests which life in the country has to offer, and a new attitude of mind towards the agricultural industry. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 47.) (iv) Craft training in the country grammar school does not differ materially from that given in urban schools. Owing to the mechanisation of agriculture, the teaching of handicraft for the older boys will approach closely to what may be described as 'elementary engineering'. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 47.) (v) Domestic science Courses for girls should include training in the utilisation and preservation of farm and garden produce. If the school possesses a dairy, such courses should also include dairywork. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 47.) 93. In country grammar schools which develop a definite 'agricultural bias' (9), the divergence between such schools and those which impart a 'rural colour' to a curriculum of the traditional type will begin in the higher forms at about the age of 15. We consider that these schools should offer courses of more specific agricultural training, for which specialist instructors, a school farm, and more extensive equipment become necessary, together with modifications of the timetable involving a longer school day and remission of homework. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 46.) 94. In districts which are not mainly agricultural, the local authority may desire, in the interests of some of the pupils, to provide an alternative science course containing engineering elements. We recommend that any alternative course of this character should fall within the general framework of a grammar school education, and should be fundamentally a course in simple engineering physics, with such changes of emphasis in the teaching of mechanics as arise from the greater stress laid on the applications of the science and the appropriate illustrations drawn from engineering practice. (Chapter 4, Part IV, Section 47.) 95. We have not summarised in this chapter the important recommendations regarding Scripture, English, classics, mathematics and science, which we have discussed in Chapters 5 and 6, since the significance of these recommendations cannot be understood properly save in the context of that discussion. We express the hope that governing bodies and teachers will give careful consideration to these chapters. 96. While we fully recognise that the School Certificate examination has been one factor in raising the general standard of attainment in school subjects to a level which could hardly have been reached without the incentive of a public external examination, and that it has also prevented narrow specialisation for pupils below the age of 16, we nevertheless think that this examination is affecting, and often adversely, not only the courses of study and methods of instruction, but also the physical health and mental outlook of many pupils. (Chapter 7, Section 2.) (10) 97. Though at the inception of this examination it was regarded as a cardinal principle that the examination should follow the curriculum and not determine it, we consider that it has had the effect of intensifying the tendency towards uniformity in the curriculum for pupils under the age of 16. (Chapter 7, Section 3 and also Chapter 1, Section 42 and Chapter 2, Section 7.) 98. We think that the demands of this examination as at present constituted, the rigour of the preparation for it, and the importance attached to the School Certificate by employers and others, are such as cumulatively to cause overstrain and excessive anxiety in many pupils, especially in cases where the possibility or degree of financial help for further education depends on the result of the examination. (Chapter 7, Section 4.) 99. We consider that a dominant cause of the pressure exercised on pupils preparing for this examination is the fact that it has been used at the same time for two distinct purposes: (i) to test the results of the first stage of the education provided by grammar schools;100. We think that the conjunction of the Matriculation Certificate and the School Certificate has helped to upset that balance between academic and non-academic subjects which we believe should be maintained. (Chapter 7, Section 5.) 101. We welcome the proposal that matriculation should not be obtainable solely on the School Certificate examination. We think, however, that, with a view to preventing premature concentration on one or two subjects, the School Certificate or its equivalent should be a first condition for matriculation. (Chapter 7, Section 6.) 102. We are in sympathy with the recommendation in the Report of the Panel of Investigators appointed by the Secondary School Examinations Council (1932) that Certificates should have recorded on them not only, as at present, those subjects in which credit is obtained, but also those in which the full pass standard is reached. (Chapter 7, Section 6.) 103. We think that there should be a greater freedom of choice for individual candidates between the different subjects of the examination than is provided by existing regulations. Since, however, we regard training in the comprehension and expression of English as of special importance both for successful work in other school studies and for the conduct of practical affairs in later life, we regard a simple test in the use and understanding of the English language as a necessary qualification for obtaining the School Certificate. We are prepared, too, to accept a requirement that a candidate in order to obtain a Certificate must pass in English and either in a foreign language or in some scientific subject (including mathematics). (Chapter 7, Sections 7 and 8.) 104. We regard as essential that there should be a reduction in the content of the examination syllabuses, and we submit the recommendation for the consideration of the Secondary School Examinations Council. If this reduction were effected, we see no objection to a requirement that a candidate must pass in at least five subjects; and we are of the opinion that this requirement is valuable as discouraging undue specialisation at this stage. Such reduction would not in our opinion make it any less desirable to extend the choice between different subjects. (Chapter 7, Section 9.) 105. We see no reason why additional papers, or, in the case of science, papers in particular sciences as well as a general science paper, should not be provided. The syllabuses on which these papers would be based would differ in scope and character from those adopted for the ordinary papers; they should not, in our view, be of heavier content than the existing syllabuses for the School Certificate. We recommend that this proposal, together with our suggestions as to the place which additional papers might take in the general scheme of the examination, should be considered by the Secondary School Examinations Council. (Chapter 7, Section 9.) 106. We believe that, as the changes which we have advocated are adopted, it will eventually be desirable for school records to be brought into consideration in connection with the award of Certificates, provided that this can be done without lowering the esteem in which the examination is held by professional bodies and employers. (Chapter 7, Section 10.) Nomenclature 107. Since the word 'junior' in the expression junior technical school has rather misleading associations, we recommend that henceforth the expression 'technical school' be used as a general term to describe all junior technical schools recruiting their pupils at the age of 13+ and providing courses which last for two or three years. The name 'technical school' will thus embrace both the specifically vocational schools hitherto known as trade schools, which prepare for definite occupations, and those schools which prepare for a range of related trades and occupations, viz. the junior technical schools for boys, bearing on the engineering and building industries, the schools designed to prepare girls for home management, and the junior commercial schools. (Chapter 8, Section 6.) Junior technical schools for boys bearing on the engineering and building industries 108. We have come to the conclusion that the junior technical schools for boys, associated with the engineering and building industries have succeeded in developing their curriculum on a broad scientific and realistic basis, and we are of opinion that for certain types of boy the education provided by this curriculum and the practical method of approach to various subjects, eg science, mathematics, and engineering drawing, best develop their capacities, and in consequence provide the course most appropriate for them whatever occupation they may eventually choose. (Chapter 8, Sections 4 and 5.) Technical high schools 109. We are convinced that it is of great importance to establish a new type of higher school of technical character quite distinct from the traditional academic grammar school. As a first step to this end, we recommend that a number of existing junior technical schools orientated towards the engineering and building industries and any other technical schools which may develop training of such a character as (a) to provide a good intellectual discipline altogether apart from its technical value, and (b) to have a technical value in relation not to one particular occupation but to a group of occupations, should be converted into technical high schools, in the sense that they should be accorded in every respect equality of status with schools of the grammar school type. We recommend that such schools, which would recruit their pupils at the age of 11+ and provide a five-year course up to the age of 16+, should be called technical high schools to distinguish them from full-time technical schools of other types which provide courses for pupils beginning at the age of 13 or 14. (Chapter 8, Sections 6 and 8.) 110. We recommend that pupils should be recruited for technical high schools at the age of 11+ by means of the general selective examination by which pupils are at present recruited for the grammar schools. (Chapter 8, Section 7.) 111. The curriculum for pupils between the ages of 11+ and 13+ in technical high schools should be broadly of the same character as the curriculum in other types of secondary school of equal status. (Chapter 8, Section 9.) (11) 112. For pupils above the age of 13 the curriculum should be designed so as to provide a liberal education with science and its applications as the core and inspiration. The subject matter would be English, history, geography, mathematics, science, engineering drawing, practical crafts in the workshops, physical education and the aesthetic subjects, together with continued study of a foreign language for those pupils who have shown that they are capable of profiting by it. (Chapter 8, Section 9.) 113. We strongly recommend that, wherever possible, technical high schools should be housed in the premises of technical colleges or technical institutes. In cases where it is not possible to accommodate the technical high school in a technical college, we think that it is most desirable that its buildings should be linked with the college buildings in order to facilitate full use of the equipment and staff of the college. (Chapter 8, Section 10.) 114. We consider that a technical high school should be organised as a department of the technical college and with the head master of the school as the head of that department. The ultimate control of the school would be vested in the principal of the college, who could best secure that the technical equipment of the various departments would be available for pupils of the school, and could most effectively secure and maintain the cooperation and interest of the heads of the specialised departments and their staffs in the life and work of the school. (Chapter 8, Section 10.) 115. Since the general conduct, discipline and corporate life of the technical high school for which its head master is responsible are necessarily distinct from those of the technical college, we suggest that a sub-committee of the governors of the college should be appointed to manage the school, that the head master should have direct access to this sub-committee, and that the appointment of teachers exclusively engaged in the work of the school should be made after consultation with him. (Chapter 8, Section 10.) 116. We consider that the fee system in technical high schools should be the same as that in grammar schools situated in the same administrative area. (Chapter 8, Section 11.) 117. We recommend that a new type of leaving certificate should be established for pupils in technical high schools on the basis of internal examinations founded on the school curriculum, and subject to external assessment by assessors appointed or approved by the Board of Education in order to afford an adequate guarantee for a uniform minimum standard of certification in technical high schools throughout the country. We recommend that the arrangements for this leaving certificate should be planned on lines similar to those in use for the existing examinations for National Certificates. (Chapter 8, Section 12.) 118. We recommend that these certificates should be given an equal standing with School Certificates as fulfilling the first condition for matriculation. (Chapter 8, Section 12. ) (12) 119. We recommend that close relations should exist between grammar schools and technical high schools, so that opportunity of transfer at about the age of 13 should exist for those pupils whose later development makes it clear that they would be better suited by an alternative form of education. (Chapter 8, Section 20.) (13) 120. We hope that employers and trade unions will see their way to reconsider the conditions of entry into and service in industry, with special reference to the age of admission and the period of apprenticeship required for boys who have taken a course in a technical high school. (Chapter 8, Section 13.) Junior commercial schools for boys and girls 121. While we fully recognise that valuable work is being done in junior commercial schools, we recommend, for the reasons stated in Sections 15 and 16 of Chapter 8 of our Report, that these schools should continue as at present to recruit their pupils at the age of 13 or 14. (Chapter 8, Sections 15 and 16.) Home training schools for girls 122. We consider that valuable work is being done in home training schools for girls and, for the reasons stated in Sections 15 and 17 of Chapter 8, we recommend that these schools should continue as heretofore to recruit their pupils at the age of 13 or 14. (Chapter 8, Sections 15 and 17.) Trade schools 123. We desire to reaffirm the view expressed in our Report on The Education of the Adolescent (1926) that the trade schools within their own province are doing valuable work and should be developed as far as is possible in accordance with the needs and requirements of certain local industries. We recommend that admission to these schools should not be obtained at an earlier age than 13+, and we would prefer 14+. We think that in areas where there is a steady demand for the entry of young people to permanent employment in established trades, schools of this type are justified. (Chapter 8, Section 19.) Junior art departments 124. We think that, before a local education authority decides to add a junior art department to its art school, it should be satisfied that the necessary variety of teaching power in art subjects can be found only in the art school, and that the probable future occupations of the pupils are of such a character that specific art teaching cannot be deferred till the age of 15 or 16. (Chapter 8, Section 21.) 125. We think that a junior art department ought to be regarded as a junior department within an art school, or an art department of a technical college, rather than as a school in itself. (Chapter 8, Section 21.) 126. We recommend that pupils should not be admitted to junior art departments till they have attained the age of 13 at least, and wherever practicable we favour a later age for admission. (Chapter 8, Section 21.) 127. In general, we do not think that specialised junior art departments afford the best means of giving a general artistic training to boys and girls. We consider that attendance at a grammar (secondary) school with a sympathetic leaning towards art teaching, followed by full-time attendance at an art school (or an art department of a technical college), for which the scholarship schemes of most local authorities provide means, is a more suitable alternative for pupils who require a general rather than a specific training in art. (Chapter 8, Section 21.) 128. We recommend that the Board of Education should consider the question of general education in junior art departments in regard both to the balance of appropriate subjects and their efficiency, and to the number of teaching periods which are devoted to them in the successive stages of the course. We suggest also that the Board should consider such questions as the local circumstances which best justify the establishment of a junior art department, how the disability arising from the comparatively small size of this department may best be remedied, and what should be the appropriate age of admission. (Chapter 8, Section 21.) Parity of schools in the secondary stage of education 129. On a first view, it would appear that many benefits might accrue if children above the age of 11 were educated together in multilateral schools, since the transfer of pupils at various ages to courses of teaching appropriate for their abilities and interests would be facilitated, and children differing in background and objective would be working in close association within the same school. For reasons which we state in the body of our Report, we have, however, with some reluctance, come to the conclusion that we could not advocate the adoption of multilateralism as a general policy in England and Wales. (Chapter 9, Introductory, Section 1.) 130. We do not, however, wish to deprecate experiments for establishing multilateral schools, especially in areas of new population. We consider further that the provision of varied types of secondary education may be assisted in some areas, particularly in those of sparse population, by the combination of a grammar school with a modern school in one set of buildings. We make detailed recommendations for the formation of multilateral schools of this type. (Chapter 9, Introductory, Section 1, and Part I, Sections 4 to 6.) 131. The multilateral idea, though it may not be expressed by means of the multilateral school, should in effect permeate the system of secondary education as we conceive it. Each type of secondary school will have its appropriate place in the national system with its educational task clearly in view; and in the great body of schools maintained or aided by the Board of Education and the local authorities educational considerations alone should determine the parent's choice, just as if the various schools were alternative sides of the same school. (Chapter 9, Introductory, Section 2.) 132. For the complete realisation of our recommendations regarding curriculum and the interrelation of schools, parity of schools in the secondary stage of education is essential. This principle was implicit in our Report on The Education of the Adolescent (1926), and we desire expressly to assert our conviction of its importance. If schools providing secondary education of different types are to be made equally acceptable to parents, and opportunities for entering the type of school which can best develop their particular abilities, are to be made equally available to the children, the establishment of parity between all types of secondary school is a fundamental requirement. (Chapter 9, Introductory, Section 2.) 133. We make a number of concrete recommendations with a view to ensuring that parity between all types of secondary school may be established, and certain other recommendations which are dependent thereon for their fulfilment. (Chapter 9, Introductory, Section 2.) A Secondary Code 134. We recommend that the three types of secondary school, attended by children over the age of 11, which we have named modern schools, grammar schools and technical high schools, should be administered under a new Code of Regulations for secondary schools, and that a Code of Regulations for primary schools should exist for schools attended by children up to the age of 11+. (Chapter 9, Part VI, Section 22.) Establishments of teaching posts 135. We recommend that the following main proposals regarding establishments of teaching posts in secondary schools, together with certain ancillary suggestions which are contained in the body of our Report, should be submitted for the consideration of the Burnham Committees. (i) That in the three types of secondary school, namely modern schools, grammar schools and technical high schools, there should be establishments of teaching posts, so that the salary of the teacher will no longer depend directly upon the type of school in which he is serving. (Chapter 9, Part II, Section 7.)Size of classes: school buildings 136. We recommend that the maximum size of classes in the grammar school and in the modern school should be the same (14); and that, accordingly, the basis of assessment for school places should be the same in both types of school. (Chapter 9, Part III, Section 10.) 137. We recommend that the building requirements, including playing fields, gymnasiums, dining rooms and common rooms, for the grammar school and the modern school should generally be the same, apart from the fuller provision necessary in grammar schools for the teaching of certain subjects of the curriculum, and the provision of smaller classrooms for sixth form use. (Chapter 9, Part III, Section 10.) School fees 138. If parity of schools in the secondary stage is to be established, payment of fees in one school and not in another becomes incongruous. We hold that the conditions which apply in modern schools, in which no fees are paid, should be extended to other types of secondary school, as soon as the national finances render it possible. For the intervening period we make proposals with regard to special places. (Chapter 9, Part IV, Section 17.) (15) 100 per cent special place system 139. In all grammar schools in which the cost to parents is substantially reduced by assistance from public funds, we recommend the adoption of the system of 100 per cent special places, subject to the following conditions: (i) A provision for grammar school and technical high school education of such amount as to afford places for all children who will benefit from receiving such education rather than from receiving education in a modern school. (Chapter 9, Part IX, Section 33 and Part X, Section 38.) (16)The special place examination 140. We believe that the selective examination at the age of 11+ for secondary schools, as ordinarily conducted, is capable of selecting in a high proportion of cases (a) those pupils who quite certainly have so much intelligence, and intelligence of such a character, that without doubt they ought to receive a secondary education of grammar school type; and (b) those pupils who quite certainly would not benefit from such an education. We consider that the line defining group (a) should be so drawn as to allot in this way something of the order of 50 per cent of the special places. (Chapter 9, Part X, Section 38, and Part IX, Section 34.) 141. We recommend that the choice for grammar school places as between pupils who fall into neither of these groups, but form a 'middle group', should be made on the result of a method of selection, including an interview, in which facts other than their relative place as determined by the examination are brought into account. About half the special places would be allotted from this 'middle group'. (Chapter 9, Part X, Section 38, and Part IX, Section 34.) 142. We think it important to recognise that the special place examination, as ordinarily conducted, is a better test for children educated in public elementary schools than for children who have received some other form of primary education. (Chapter 9, Part X, Section 38.) 143. We desire again to emphasise that no method of choice can work satisfactorily unless there are enough grammar school places to secure a grammar school education for those children who, all things considered, will benefit more from such a course than from other forms of secondary education. (Chapter 9, Part IX, Section 33, and Part X, Section 38.) Transfer of pupils at the age of 13+ 144. We recommend that there should be a further review, at about the age of 13, of the distribution of children among all schools in the secondary stage. (Chapter 9, Part XII, Sections 43 and 46.) (18) 145. We recommend that this review should not take the form of a general examination, but that it should be incumbent upon the heads of schools to prepare returns in respect of those pupils who, in their opinion, might be better placed in other types of secondary school. (Chapter 9, Part XII, Section 46.) 146. For reasons which we have given in the body of this Report, and in our earlier Report on The Education of the Adolescent (1926), we recommend that opportunity for transfer of pupils at a later age than 11+ should be made a reality, and that definite educational machinery should be devised for this purpose. (Chapter 9, Part XII, Sections 43 and 44.) 147. The kind of transfer which we consider to be undoubtedly of highest importance and of most frequent occurrence is that from modern schools to grammar schools or to technical high schools. (Chapter 8, Section 7; Chapter 9, Part XII, Section 45.) 148. We consider that transfer of pupils from grammar schools to junior commercial schools or home training schools at the age of 13 should be very exceptional, and that, as a general rule, the pupils should be retained in the grammar school until they have taken the School Certificate examination, and that they should proceed at about the age of 16 to appropriate full-time courses in commercial subjects or in home training at technical colleges. (Chapter 8, Section 20.) The school leaving age 149. Parity among schools under the proposed new Secondary Code (19) implies the raising of the minimum leaving age to the same general level in these schools. (Chapter 9, Part V, Section 19.) 150. The adoption of a minimum leaving age of 16 years, which is now the rule in grammar schools, may not be immediately practicable, but in our judgement must even now be envisaged as inevitable. (Chapter 9, Part V, Section 19.) Amount of provision of education of the grammar school and technical high school types 151. We consider that the amount of provision of education of the grammar school type which is desirable cannot be precisely laid down for the country as a whole. It depends in each area in a high degree on the character and traditions of the population, industrial conditions, and the future careers of the children. We seek to arrive at a standard by which local authorities may measure their provision of grammar school education, having regard to what they judge to be the particular needs of their areas. (Chapter 9, Part VIII, Section 26.) 152. On the assumption that alternative forms of secondary education will be provided, on the one hand by the development of modern schools both of the selective and non-selective type, and on the other hand by an adequate supply of technical high schools, we think that provision based on an average annual admission to the grammar schools of 15 per cent of the secondary school age group in the public elementary schools (20) might for the present be accepted as a working figure, apart from any margin that may be required for pupils entering grammar schools from other than public elementary schools. (21) (Chapter 9, Part VIII, Section 28.) 153. The standard which we have mentioned may require, on detailed consideration, considerable modification in particular areas, in order to conform to our governing principle that the supply of grammar school places should be regarded as adequate only when a grammar school education is available for all those pupils who will benefit more from such a course than from such other forms of secondary education as are provided in technical high schools and modern schools. In view of the provision of technical high schools which we are recommending for boys, a somewhat higher grammar school provision is likely to be required for girls. This is the more necessary since the provision for boys is already more generous than that for girls. (Chapter 9, Part VIII, Section 28.) 154. We are strongly of the opinion that there is room for a considerable development of technical high schools; and we suggest that the provision of technical high schools in association with technical colleges does not concern exclusively the more highly industrialised areas. We commend this problem to local authorities for their careful consideration. (Chapter 9, Part VIII, Section 29.) 155. We further recommend that the provision of grammar schools with an 'agricultural bias', or alternatively of technical high schools associated with technical colleges in rural areas, should be seriously undertaken; and that the development of such schools should not be left entirely to individual interest and initiative, but should be planned by the local authorities on a regional basis. (Chapter 9, Part VIII, Section 31.) (22) Post-certificate work in grammar schools 156. We are convinced of the importance of developing sixth forms in grammar schools both for their effect upon the corporate life and internal affairs of a school, and for their effect upon the length of school life and future careers of individual pupils. (Chapter 9, Part XI, Section 39.) (23) 157. We deprecate any proposals whereby all sixth form work would be concentrated in 'central' grammar schools, with the consequent 'beheading' of the smaller grammar schools. We consider it of importance that every grammar school should contain a sixth form. (Chapter 9, Part XI, Section 39.) 158. We think it highly important that the governors and heads of grammar schools should give careful consideration to the framing of post-certificate courses, appropriate for pupils who are not going on to the university, of a general character but containing where possible elements definitely related to the future careers of the pupils. (Chapter 9, Part XI, Section 40.) (23) 159. There are circumstances in which pupils preparing for the university or for the Higher School Certificate should not be retained in a small grammar school. We believe that such individual cases of transfer at a late age may be met by sympathetic administration. (Chapter 9, Part XI, Section 41.) 160. We have come to the conclusion that, from the point of view of practical administration, there may be at times a case for a mutual transfer of pupils among large town schools, and occasionally even among schools in a county area, so that strong sixth forms may exist in each school for particular types of Higher School Certificate work. (Chapter 9, Part XI, Section 42.) Autonomous areas 161. We recommend that the problem of 'Part III Authorities' should be remitted to a departmental or inter-departmental committee which would not seek any general solution before it had fully investigated the circumstances of individual areas; the character of the work already accomplished by Part III Authorities; the possibly deterrent effects of a dual administration; the efficacy of devolution; the minimum standard of school population requisite for the exercise of full educational powers; the effect of amalgamation, or transfer of powers, upon the administrative efficiency of neighbouring authorities; and other relevant matters. (Chapter 9, Part VII, Section 25.) Private schools 162. We recommend that compulsory inspection of all private schools should be introduced without further delay. (Chapter 9, Part IX, Section 37.) 163. Secondary education in Wales presents a number of special problems due to several causes, of which the most important are the extensive provision of intermediate schools, now generally known as county schools, under the Welsh Intermediate Education Act 1889; the comparative neglect of the provision made for technical education under that Act; the bilingual problem; the problem created by the areas of sparse population and by the fact that in some districts pupils do not enter the intermediate (county) schools till the age of 12. (Chapter 10, passim.) 164. We recommend that immediate attention should be given to the age of admission to 'intermediate' schools. (Chapter 10, Section 3.) 165. While we fully recognise that the small size of many of the intermediate schools has hitherto rendered it difficult to provide successfully alternative intermediate and technical courses, we think that the suggestion which we have made in Chapter 9 for the experimental establishment of small grammar schools incorporating a modern (senior) school might be specially applicable to conditions in some Welsh areas, and might assist also towards the solution of the problem of providing for the technical side of secondary education. We accordingly recommend that the whole question of establishing modern (senior) schools in close association with grammar schools, particularly in areas of sparse population, should be examined, and that the particular solution of the problem contemplated by the Welsh Departmental Committee in 1929 (24) should be seriously considered in the light of the suggestions we have made. (Chapter 10, Section 4.) 166. We note that the Welsh language is being given its due place in the curriculum of the schools and that various methods have been adopted to cope with the difficulties of bilingualism. We suggest that the standard in English to be expected of boys and girls in Welsh grammar schools need not be lower than that in the grammar schools of England. (Chapter 10, Section 5.) 167. In view of the bilingual problem we desire strongly to recommend that generous provision of books in English and Welsh, both for class use and for library use, should be made in Welsh grammar schools. (Chapter 10, Section 5.) 168. We suggest that liberal provision should be made, as has already been done in many cases, for the teaching of arts and crafts, speech training, music and dramatic art, and the history of Wales in connection with Welsh literature and with physical and economic geography. In particular, we would suggest that more attention should be devoted to the teaching of art. (Chapter 10, Section 7.) 169. Having regard to the opinion expressed by the Federation of Welsh Education Authorities 'that religious instruction and a knowledge of the Bible should be an integral and active part of the curriculum for secondary school pupils', we call special attention to our detailed Recommendations in Chapter 5 regarding the teaching of Scripture in grammar schools. (Chapter 10, Section 7.) (Signed): Will Spens (Chairman)
13 October 1938.
Footnotes (1) The expression 'Latin School' is still widely used in the central European countries as a popular name for Gymnasien in which Latin forms an important element in the curriculum. (2) It is difficult and rather unsatisfactory to attempt to summarise briefly the current views of psychologists about transfer. We therefore strongly recommend readers of this Report to peruse with special care Section 19 of Chapter 3, together with Professor Burt's note in Appendix IV on the Faculty psychology, and Professor Hamley's note in Appendix V on the Cognitive aspects of transfer. (3) See also Recommendations 156-60. (4) See also Chapter 7, The School Certificate examination. (5) See Recommendation 92. (6) See also Recommendations 119 and 144-8 of this chapter dealing with transfer of pupils at the age of 13+, and Chapter 8, Section 7. (7) In Chapter 5 we make some suggestions in regard to the teaching of Scripture by specialist teachers. (8) See Recommendation 70. (9) See Recommendation 155. (10) See also Chapter 4, Part I, Section 4. (11) See Chapter 4, Section 40. (12) See Recommendation 101. (13) See Recommendations 71 and 144-8. (14) 'The number of pupils taught together at one time must not without the concurrence of the Board exceed thirty, and must never exceed thirty-five.' Grant Regulations No. 10 (1935) - Regulation 5. (15) See Chapter 8, Section 11. (16) See Recommendations 143 and 151. (17) See Recommendations 140-3. (18) See also Recommendations 71 and 119. (19) See Recommendation 134. (20) By 'secondary school age group' we mean the age group 10 to 11 years in the public elementary schools (see p. 320). (21) Our evidence shows that this margin during the last few years can be expressed for the country as a whole as a constant figure of 3 per cent of the secondary school age group in public elementary schools. (22) See Chapter 4, Part IV. (23) See Chapter 4, Section 22. (24) See also Recommendation 16 on page 151 of the Report of that Committee, entitled Education in Rural Wales (1930) which runs as follows: 'It should be made possible, by legislation if that is necessary, for the existing intermediate and secondary school buildings to be made available for all types of post primary education.' 
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