James (1972)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Membership, Contents

Chapter 1 Introduction
Chapter 2 The third cycle
Chapter 3 The second cycle
Chapter 4 The first cycle
Chapter 5 Organisation and development of the system
Chapter 6 Summary of the report
A note of extension

Appendix 1 ATOs and other bodies supplying reports
Appendix 2 Sources of written evidence
Appendix 3 Sources of oral evidence
Appendix 4 Visits made by members of the Committee
Appendix 5 Training institutions and the teaching force 1962-70
Appendix 6 Examples of course structure for the DipHE
Appendix 7 A possible distribution of Regional Councils
Appendix 8 Training institutions: size and status
Appendix 9 List of recommendations

Index

Report by a Committee of Inquiry appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science, under the Chairmanship of Lord James of Rusholme

London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office 1972
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.

Chapter 4 The first cycle
[pages 40 - 48]

4.1 Fundamental to the proposals made in this report for the initial training of teachers is the belief that all those entering teacher training should have already achieved a good standard in higher education. This chapter explores the nature and scope of that education, seeks to establish the general principles upon which colleges of education, polytechnic departments of education and perhaps in time other institutions could base new courses of study, and describes the qualifications to which those courses should lead.

4.2 The discussion in the previous chapter of the concurrent course recognised the existence in the initial preparation of the teacher of two elements which can in theory be sharply distinguished, even if in application they are often blended. The first of these is the acquisition of the theoretical and practical expertise comprehended by the study of education. For many teachers this, as is implied by the whole argument of Chapter 3, would be postponed to the second and third cycles, but it is hoped that other intending teachers would elect to make it an element in their first cycle studies and that institutions (universities, polytechnics and other colleges, as well as colleges of education) would permit such a choice to be given effect. The second element, inadequately but evocatively labelled 'the personal education' of the student, is the particular subject of this chapter. We believe that there are general principles which should give shape to that 'personal education', whatever the type of work which may later be undertaken by the potential teacher, and that the work of the students following a first cycle programme in a college of education, with which this report is, by its very nature, most directly concerned should combine the advantages of study in depth with the merits of a more broadly based education.

Degrees as first cycle qualifications

4.3 For the man or woman who will be mainly concerned with the teaching of one or two subjects to a relatively high level, a degree course, whether in a university or elsewhere, may well provide the most appropriate educational base and we would expect that for many teachers success in obtaining a university or CNAA degree would be the most suitable way of satisfying the requirements of the first cycle. This statement must, however, be qualified in three ways. First, since most degree courses make no specific provision for continuing general education, it is even more essential for the intending teacher than for others to accept the responsibility for self-education which this omission lays upon him and to use his leisure during his degree course, or the opportunities provided by a well-conceived professional course in the second cycle, to consider the applications of his subject and to widen his horizons beyond his special interests. Secondly, we welcome and would encourage those degree courses in which education is studied as part of a joint degree, for example in physics and education or in a modern language and education. There may well be scope for the development of joint degrees in, say, mathematics and the philosophy of education or in history and the psychology of education, and holders of such degrees might be especially welcome in primary schools. In joint degrees the educational studies can be a broadening influence on the student's development and the vocational flavour of this part of his work will often increase his motivation towards his specialist studies. Thirdly, although a university or CNAA degree is the natural and proper form of the first cycle for some teachers, it by no means follows that it is the most desirable one for all. Indeed, a note of caution is needed at this point. As the number of graduates coming out of the universities and polytechnics increases, more of them will no doubt seek entry into teaching - and sometimes in kinds of teaching for which they are fitted neither by their subject-centred education nor by any strongly felt personal interest. Where some highly qualified graduates in specialist fields are also motivated towards, say, working with young children they may well become distinguished teachers of infants and be of great value to the schools. But they are likely to remain few.

Diploma in higher education as a first cycle qualification

4.4 For very many teachers a different kind of preparation is needed, and it is suggested that this could be provided in a two year course leading to the award of a Diploma in Higher Education. Such a course would be a more appropriate foundation, not only for many teachers in first and middle schools, but also for many of the non-specialist teachers of adolescents who are needed in secondary schools and FE colleges. It is a course which the colleges of education will be especially well fitted to provide, since it develops naturally from the present pattern of their work and makes use of the expertise which they have already built up. A common course of professional training, extending over two years for all, would thus be preceded by a diploma course for some teachers and a degree course for others. There should be no implication that one route is more difficult or more prestigious than the other. The distinction means simply that different kinds of teaching, not necessarily related to types of schools or to the ages of the children to be taught, may require different kinds of preparation.

4.5 The main concern of this Committee has been to study and reflect on the education, training and probation of teachers and our terms of reference have encouraged us to consider whether it is possible to break down what is often described as the 'isolation' in which many teachers are at present educated. Many voices have urged that prospective teachers should not be obliged to commit themselves at the age of 18 to a course which can lead only to a teaching qualification. It is argued that students following courses which may lead to teaching should have the opportunities enjoyed by students in other sectors of higher education of moving in other directions without disadvantage and that the presence in institutions attended by potential teachers of students proceeding to other careers would end the 'isolation' of which complaint is made. Such criticisms and proposals point towards a consecutive pattern of preparation for teaching, in which a student's formal commitment to professional training need not come until after a period of 'uncommitted' education.

4.6 We have at the same time been urged to protect the interests of those students who, from the outset, have a teaching career clearly in view. Many students do embark on their higher education with the clear intention of becoming teachers. It would be curiously unjust and unwise to place arbitrary obstacles in the way of those very students whose strong and early motivation gives promise of their becoming some of the most effective and dedicated teachers. Proposals for the first cycle must make it possible for such students to choose from among the available options a course which is similar in many important respects to the concurrent courses now offered in the colleges of education. The arrangements for the diploma course outlined below would allow such a choice to be made. Some colleges should have the opportunity to concentrate on courses of this type. The colleges likely to choose such a line of development might include those at present specialising in preparing teachers of physical education or home economics as well as those with a justly high reputation for training teachers of young children. There would be nothing whatever to prevent their continuing in their specialist role if they wished to do so.

4.7 Fears are sometimes expressed that the supply of teachers would be at risk if students in the colleges of education were systematically given the choice of entering careers other than teaching. The proposals in this report would, however, in no way inhibit students who were already determined to teach, and many students following the diploma course, with no predisposition towards teaching, might well be attracted to it by their experiences on the course. Moreover, as has already been mentioned, there is likely to be a substantial increase in the number of graduates coming forward from the universities, polytechnics and other institutions. The number of applicants qualified and willing to proceed to teacher training may be expected to exceed the number of second cycle places likely to be needed. Some of the problems of selection for the second cycle which therefore arise have been discussed in Chapter 3.

Structure of the diploma course

4.8 Throughout the discussion which follows two points must be kept in mind: the importance of the general principles and the freedom of colleges and other institutions to interpret them in a variety of ways. Reference has already been made to the merits both of study in depth and of a broadly based education. These elements must be combined and interrelated, as 'special' and 'general' studies, in the Diploma in Higher Education. Such a synthesis would serve the needs of teachers without in any way diminishing the value and attractiveness to other students of the course proposed. In special studies the aim will be to encourage the student to pursue his chosen subjects in some depth and to acquire some degree of mastery of them. In general studies the aim will rather be to stimulate individual thought and discussion, to enable the student to realise the kind of problems and experiences that exist in fields outside his own, to make good the deficiencies in his intellectual and cultural awareness and above all to tempt him to further efforts of self-education in directions which he had not previously considered.

4.9 Colleges should attempt to avoid any rigid curricular or organisational separation between special and general studies, or between personal studies and those which may have a bearing on a subsequent occupational choice. To establish principles and determine emphasis is not to create compartments and departments. The creation of a Department of General Studies within a college of education is a singularly unattractive prospect, although it would certainly be desirable for a member of the staff to be responsible for coordinating his colleagues' efforts in this area of the college's work. Here, then, the principles underlying general and special studies will be elaborated. In Appendix 6 are some examples of a pattern of courses in which - for those students who so wish - educational studies could be incorporated in their programmes.

4.10 The aim of a course in general studies should be to provide stimulus to the student, an incentive to self-education, and an attitude of critical awareness. Studies of this kind provide an opportunity to raise and discuss questions of importance without an obligation to pursue each one in all its specialist connotations. One of the tasks of general education is to make good some of the cultural deficiencies of those who propose to be teachers of others. The course must therefore aim at providing some essential background in the main areas of human thought and activity, i.e. the humanities (above all literature), mathematics and the sciences (including their applications in practical situations), the social sciences, and the arts. No list of possible themes within such areas can be inclusive, and it is anticipated that all colleges will choose to provide, in addition to the type of specifically education-oriented courses outlined in paragraph 4.13, courses of a more general character drawing their materials, methods and insights from the field of educational studies.

4.11 Although ideally every student should follow a course made up of elements selected from all or most of these areas, there should be sufficient flexibility to ensure that no one finds himself forced to meet some arbitrary requirement by resorting to a process of mere memorising. It is probable that no two institutions could or should devise identical courses in the area of general studies. Such courses should arise from a process of intense and continuing discussion among the staff, in which the most fundamental questions about curriculum are asked. The courses should thus reflect, and be enlivened by, the genuine interests of the teachers. In the hands of the skilful and enthusiastic teacher many apparently narrow and irrelevant courses can become vehicles for an authentic general education. We have found in a number of colleges evidence that there were teachers who, given the opportunity, would derive a new sense of purpose from devising courses of this type, but who at present feel themselves frustrated by a false conception of academic respectability. It is clear, too, from the reports of some of the ATO reviews invited by the former Secretary of State, that a number of colleges are only too anxious to break new ground in this way and that some of them have already made a start in doing so.

4.12 Many of the principles underlying a wise approach to general studies apply with equal force to special studies. Others, however, need to be introduced. One is that the student's choice of options in his general studies course must be related to his choice of special studies. A student studying mathematics as a special subject will not, for example, normally include this option as part of his general studies course. Another principle is that the choice of special studies will depend both on the student's own preference and on the staffing and other resources of the college. One of the most obvious weaknesses of the present organisation of the colleges is a wasteful diffusion of effort. The attempt to offer too wide a range of options and the proliferation of small teaching groups in BEd courses have often led to an unfortunate misuse of resources. The standard of teaching in educational studies and the staffing ratio in the Education department have often suffered. There must, therefore, be a rationalisation of the special subjects offered by individual colleges. There might be some special subject options offered by only a few colleges, which could then become real centres of excellence in those fields. The administrative machinery by which such a rationalisation could be accomplished is discussed in Chapter 5.

4.13 A further principle on which the diploma should be based is that the course should be suitable for those students intending to teach as well as for those with other objectives. The range of special studies offered to students should therefore include some with a direct and obvious relevance to teaching as a career. Students who wished to do so could then study, say, 'child development' and social psychology as special subjects in their diploma course and thus make progress towards their occupational goals. Moreover, just as students specialising in modern languages, geography or biology are encouraged to do field work, so students whose special studies were directed towards teaching should have the opportunity, as part of their first cycle course, to study a variety of social agencies, including not only a selection of widely differing schools and FE establishments, but also such places as community homes, probation hostels, juvenile courts, local government agencies and the personnel departments in factories. This kind of experience, although particularly appropriate for the future teacher or social worker, would also form a valuable part of the education of many other young people in the colleges, who might have chosen some aspect of educational studies as part of their general studies programme.

4.14 It is possible that in this way some students who were undecided on a career when they started on the course might be drawn to teaching or to youth or social work by seeing something of the challenges and opportunities of work of this kind. In the places where practical observation is part of the course, many students - especially, as one would expect, those intending to teach or enter related careers - establish with particular schools or other institutions informal contacts which go far beyond those required by their course work. There are many cases where students regularly visit and 'help' in schools in their free time, and accompany them on camps and excursions in the holidays. This kind of experience helps to bring into a consecutive some of the advantages associated with a concurrent course.

4.15 Three examples may be given of the ways in which the 'committed teacher' may be helped to see the relevance of either his general or his special studies to the career he proposes to follow. First, there cannot be any barrier between 'a subject' and the methods by which a lecturer can communicate to others the satisfaction he gets from it. The study of philosophy for intending teachers, to give another example, is rightly defended as of great value in introducing students to a variety of fundamental problems and to the technique of asking and answering questions in the pursuit of truth. It so happens that some of the questions of most absorbing interest to the intelligent student arise from a study of education. One of the greatest of philosophical works is also perhaps the most stimulating of all books on education, The Republic. In the first cycle, those who are intending teachers and those who are not can profit from a common course in which some examples of philosophical questions are drawn from the one experience they all have in common, that is the experience of being educated. To give a third example, some of the novels that should be introduced to all students, either in a literature course or elsewhere, concern the experiences of childhood and youth, and will be of professional interest to the intending teacher even if the main purpose of reading them is to enrich the personal lives of a whole group, whether teachers or not. Indeed, the teaching of almost any subject, to intending teachers and other students alike, should be illuminated by some awareness of its relationship to other areas of knowledge and its reference to the social, political, economic, cultural and technological conditions of contemporary society. Given the right kind of teaching, the problem of reconciling the virtues of concurrent and consecutive courses becomes much less formidable, even if the main solution of it must be the inclusion among the special subject choices of the study of subjects closely related to education.

4.16 The methods of teaching are themselves of vital importance. Since the underlying aim is to stimulate thought and interest, discussion is better than lecturing. It is in seminar or tutorial groups that individuals recognise the value of interests outside their special studies, and it is in such groups that some aspects of those books and other works that form the great tradition of culture can be discussed. Another important feature of the diploma course should be the provision of ample opportunities for individual work. Although much of the criticism of the work in the colleges is exaggerated or misconceived, there is no lack of evidence that students, even if not overworked, are over-taught. This state of affairs arises in some cases from the desire to achieve inappropriate standards, often simply of factual information. It sometimes arises also from a compartmental view of the work of a college, so that the student's programme is not considered as a coherent whole. If the diploma course is to give the right kind of education, the student must have sufficient hours in the week to work independently and to read widely for himself. If it is objected, as it sometimes is, that the students are too immature to take advantage of such opportunities, then the ethos of the colleges must be so altered as to encourage this kind of self-education. Towards this alteration of attitude, the development of a satisfactory programme of general studies should provide a considerable stimulus.

4.17 Some examples of how courses for the DipHE might be constructed are given in Appendix 6. It will be seen that the programmes outlined there would in effect consist of specialised studies occupying two thirds of the student's time, and general studies occupying the remaining one third. In one of the two examples given the student's educational studies could be identified as part of his special studies, but not in the other. Other examples could readily be given in which educational studies were not represented in either category of curricular analysis. We recommend that general studies should normally occupy one third of the time and that the full course should last for two years, believing that period to be sufficient to provide a genuine educational experience without delaying unreasonably, for students with a strong and admirable vocation towards teaching, entry into those practical situations that they are so often eager to encounter.

Currency of the diploma

4.18 It has been emphasised that, in accordance with our terms of reference, our first concern in devising the diploma that is discussed here was to ensure that it would be a suitable educational base on which the subsequent professional training of many teachers could rest. It must also be stressed that such a diploma could fulfil several other important functions. That it would do so is central to our recommendations.

4.19 The course described here would provide a higher education of value in itself: for a number, perhaps an increasing number, of students the diploma could well be a terminal qualification. It is one of the curiosities of higher education in this country that for the 18 year old school leaver who does not want to enter employment immediately there is virtually no alternative, apart from certain kinds of training that are specifically vocational, to a 3-year course leading either to a degree or to a teaching qualification. The diploma suggested here would offer a 2-year course consisting of both a general education and some specialised elements, which themselves might look to future occupational choices, for example languages or economics for students thinking of a career in business. It has been suggested that such a qualification would be welcomed not only by business, industry and the public service but also by the schools. The schools may see it, for many of their sixth formers who require higher education, as a welcome alternative to the present university courses which are not necessarily well-suited to the aptitudes and aspirations of all those who are formally qualified to take them. It would be naive to disregard completely the weight of responsible university opinion questioning whether there is sufficient motivation for university courses, as at present conceived, on the part of many of the formally qualified students who choose to follow them. If these misgivings are justified one solution might be to modify entirely the idea of a university. Another would be to offer a different course, equally suitable for able students but so broadened in scope that it would provide a more satisfying educational experience for many of them. The latter solution is the one recommended here.

4.20 The Diploma in Higher Education, given its content and character, would not only be a terminal qualification for many students and the basis for the professional training of many teachers. but could also increasingly provide an appropriate educational basis for training in other professions. If so, this professional training would often be given in institutions other than those in which the students had taken their diplomas.

4.21 Some students following the diploma course might wish to continue rigorous academic study to a higher level. Of these, some might be acceptable candidates for university or CNAA degree courses and it is to be hoped that, although the number of transfers would probably be small, institutions offering these courses would feel able to accept such students and give them credit for their two years' higher education. For some others, there should be opportunities within the college system to pursue degree courses based on, and developed from, the new courses designed for the DipHE, which would often meet their needs better than existing degree studies. It should be possible, therefore, for certain large colleges, at least one in each of the areas covered by the regional organisations described in Chapter 5, to offer courses leading to both general and honours degrees of this new and unconventional kind. Where necessary, students for these courses would transfer from other colleges to those designated by the national agency to provide such degree courses. To offer degrees of this kind would increase the variety of courses available in the college system and enrich the academic community in which many teachers would be educated and trained. The development of work so much in keeping with the spirit of the diploma would carry little risk of distorting the pattern of work for the majority of students in the colleges.

4.22 It is important to consider whether the diploma should be awarded as a 'package', on performances in all its constituent elements, or whether it should be a 'subject' award, the candidate obtaining a diploma specifying his performance in the constituent parts. Our preference inclines us strongly towards the first alternative, in which the diploma, like a degree, is conceived as a unified qualification. If the diploma became simply a subject examination, it would show a traditional and limited approach, very much out of sympathy with the spirit in which it was conceived. Both students and lecturers might tend to overemphasise the importance of special studies, to the neglect of those general studies which are of fundamental importance to all students. The development of new approaches to general studies and of experiment with unit courses, giving flexibility in programming and a maximum freedom of choice to students, would be inhibited by a subject-based approach. The diploma should be so designed as to emphasise the interrelationship of various approaches to academic study and the importance of aesthetic and practical experiences, not often catered for in the present system of higher education. To submit this course to the arbitrary assessment of separate 'subjects' in the traditional style would destroy its coherence and restrict the radical new approach and experimentation which are central to the concept. On the other hand, it is obvious that for some kinds of professional training, or some occupations, certain combinations of subjects would be more suitable than others, and there can be no doubt that the general currency and acceptability of the diploma would be enhanced if it specified the particular strengths possessed by its holders. On balance, we would think that the best solution would be so to frame the regulations for the diploma that all diplomas, when awarded, would also be endorsed with any special subject successes achieved.

4.23 At present it is possible for students to enter colleges of education with five O Levels only, although a considerable and growing number of candidates have one, two or three A Levels. Further, with the increase over the next decade in the number of those leaving school with two A Levels, it is certain that the qualifications expected from entrants to the colleges will rise. A number of witnesses have maintained that entry to colleges should immediately be fixed at two A Levels to bring their formal standards into line with the university sector, not least in order to raise the prestige both of the colleges and of the teaching profession. This argument has force and would become even stronger with the introduction of the Diploma in Higher Education. What standing could such an award have if entry to the course leading to it were below A level standard? Several witnesses have, on the other hand, drawn attention to the fact that to raise substantially and immediately the entry standard to the colleges would lead to a shortfall in the supply of certain categories of teacher. They have also argued persuasively that there are very many students, some with experience and qualifications not directly related to A Levels, who have the qualities of personality and interest which will enable them to be excellent teachers. The value of two A Levels as a criterion of suitability for higher education is widely doubted and it is probable that over the next few years the whole A Level structure will be substantially modified and that other examinations may be introduced alongside it. Most important of all, although it is clear that many more potential entrants to the colleges could pass one or two A Levels if they had to, it is likely that their education in the sixth form would be distorted in the process. On balance, it is recommended that while the possession of two A Levels should be the normal requirement for entry upon a diploma course, exemptions should be generously given at any rate for several years.

4.24 The proposals in this chapter would depend on the acceptance of the diploma as a valuable qualification and no award can acquire high prestige overnight. The question of what body should be responsible for its award is of great importance and is subject to three major considerations: first, that the diploma must achieve high status and national currency; secondly, that individual colleges must enjoy a great measure of freedom in devising courses and in examining them; and thirdly, that the machinery for administering the diploma must be in operation very quickly. These are among the questions discussed in the next chapter.