Elton (1989)

Notes on the text
Preliminary pages Contents, Foreword, Membership, Summary
Recommendations
Chapter 1 The enquiry
Chapter 2 The nature of the problem
Chapter 3 Teachers
Chapter 4 Schools
Chapter 5 Parents
Chapter 6 Pupils
Chapter 7 Attendance
Chapter 8 Police
Chapter 9 Governors
Chapter 10 Local education authorities
Chapter 11 Government
Appendix A Written evidence received
Appendix B Witnesses
Appendix C Visits
Appendix D(i) Teachers and Discipline Part I
Appendix D(ii) Teachers and Discipline Part II
Appendix E Selected bibliography
Appendix F Behaviour policies

London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office 1989
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.

Chapter 3 Teachers
[pages 67 - 87]

1 The classroom is the most important place in the education system. What happens there every school day decides how well the purposes of the system are being achieved.

2 In order to learn well, children need a calm and purposeful classroom atmosphere. Our terms of reference ask us to look at how this can be secured. Teachers must be able to keep order. If they cannot, all the children in their charge will suffer. They should not face this task alone. They need and deserve support from many other organisations, groups and individuals. But we start by considering teachers because they play the central role.

CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT

3 Our survey shows that teachers see talking out of turn and other forms of persistent, low-level disruption as the most frequent and wearing kinds of classroom misbehaviour. Low-level disruption is not a new feature of classroom life. All of us remember from our own school days that some teachers had problems with their classes and others did not. Those who did not were by no means always older or stricter. They were teachers we respected and very often liked. Such teachers knew how to get the best out of groups of children.

4 Our evidence shows a very broad measure of agreement across the education service (headteachers' and teachers' professional associations, training establishments, LEAs and individual teachers) that a teacher's general competence has a strong influence on his or her pupils' behaviour. There is also a broad measure of agreement on what a teacher needs to be fully effective. Knowledge of the subject to be taught is obviously crucial. So is the ability to plan and deliver a lesson which flows smoothly and holds pupils' attention. The third area of competence comprises a range of skills associated with managing groups of pupils. It includes the ability to relate to young people, to encourage them in good behaviour and learning, and to deal calmly but firmly with inappropriate or disruptive behaviour. As a useful shorthand we refer to it in our report as 'group management skills'.

5 Our evidence suggests that the importance of group management skills tends to be underestimated by teachers and by their trainers. This was confirmed by our expert witnesses. We find this worrying because it is the area of competence which relates most directly to pupil behaviour.

6 Teachers with good group management skills are able to establish positive relationships with their classes based on mutual respect. They can create a classroom climate in which pupils lose rather than gain popularity with their classmates by causing trouble. They can also spot a disruptive incident in the making, choose an appropriate tactic to deal with it and nip it in the bud. They always seem to know what is going on behind their backs. Good group managers understand how groups of young people react to each other and to teachers. They also understand, and are in full control of, their own behaviour. They model the good behaviour they expect of pupils. All this requires an impressive range of professional skills.

7 We appreciate the difficulty of the task facing teachers, and the fact that most of them tackle it well every day. This deserves recognition and respect. We also recognise that teachers need support from a variety of sources. Many of our recommendations aim to provide or improve that support. We do not underestimate the seriousness of classroom violence. It is rare but it happens. Teachers who are attacked should have the strongest possible backing and we make recommendations to this effect in chapter 10.

8 Our evidence suggests however that there are teachers who lack confidence in their own ability to deal with disruption and who see their classes as potentially hostile. They create a negative classroom atmosphere by frequent criticism and rare praise. They make use of loud public reprimands and threats. They are sometimes sarcastic. They tend to react aggressively to minor incidents. Their methods increase the danger of a major confrontation not only with individual pupils but with the whole class.

9 Young people rightly see this kind of defensive style as a sign of weakness. Like anyone else they react badly to frequent criticism, sarcasm and aggression. A class will feel no good will towards teachers who behave in this way. Their punishments will be seen as unjust and vindictive. In this atmosphere pupils will gain status with their classmates by challenging the teacher's authority.

10 Serious classroom disruption usually comes about by a process of escalation. It is very unusual for serious trouble to start without a build-up. Escalation from minor incidents can have serious results, such as teachers being verbally abused by pupils. Several of our expert witnesses emphasised the importance of understanding escalation and avoiding it by appropriate intervention.

11 Teachers suffer from quite high levels of occupational stress, and we would expect difficulties with pupils' behaviour to contribute to these. Research evidence (Kyriacou 1986) confirms our impressions. Most teachers work in situations where they are the only adult in a room full of children. If relationships are good the experience can be very rewarding. If not it can very stressful. The feeling that things are out of control is an important cause of stress. Teachers who lack group management skills will experience that feeling and the resulting stress will make them even less effective. Growing anxiety will also make their relationships with pupils more difficult and increase their tendency to overreact to minor incidents.

12 A few letters we received came close to saying that group management should not be part of a teacher's job. We reject this view. Teaching has never just been about the transmission of knowledge and never will be. Establishing good relationships with pupils, encouraging them to learn and to behave well have always been essential parts of a teacher's work. This cannot be achieved by talking at children, but by working with them.

13 A more common belief is that group management skills are simply a natural gift. You either have it or you don't. Our evidence does not support this belief. Its most damaging feature is that teachers who have difficulty controlling classes tend to put this down to personal inadequacy rather that to a lack of particular skills which can be acquired through training or advice from colleagues.

14 The most talented, 'natural' teachers may need little training or advice because they learn so quickly from experience. At the other extreme, there are a few teachers for whom training and advice will not be properly effective because their personalities do not match the needs of the job. It is clear, however, that the majority of teachers can become more effective classroom managers as a result of the right kinds of training, experience and support.

15 Teachers have tended to stay out of each others' classrooms and not to talk about their own discipline problems. Too often teachers do not seek help because it feels like an admission of incompetence, and they do not offer it because it feels like accusing a colleague of incompetence. As a result the tradition of classroom isolation persists in many schools.

16 The beliefs that either group management skills should not be necessary or that they cannot be learned seem to be traditional in parts of the profession. Our evidence suggests that these beliefs contribute significantly towards teacher stress. This is further increased by the more widespread tradition of classroom isolation. We see these beliefs or traditions as barriers to good teaching. They should be removed as quickly as possible. 17 In 1987 Her Majesty's Inspectors of Schools (HMI) carried out a survey of about 300 new teachers in their first year in schools. Among other things HMI asked them how well they felt their training had prepared them for classroom management. We did not find their answers reassuring. HMI say that 'most comments on education studies complained of an overemphasis on theory ... A substantial number of new teachers felt that discipline and control had not been adequately dealt with on their courses'.

18 HMI observed lessons taught by these teachers. In 85% of them class management was considered satisfactory, but in 15% it was not.

19 Most of these teachers were trained before the present criteria for approving teacher training courses came into effect. These criteria are set out in DES Circular 3/84 and Welsh Office Circular 21/84. They include the requirement that courses should prepare students 'to teach the full range of pupils ... with their diversity of ... behaviour'.

20 We asked all 92 initial teacher training establishments in England and Wales (colleges, polytechnic and university departments) specific questions about the training they provided in the practical aspects of group management in the classroom. We received 56 replies. Many said that discipline issues 'permeated' their courses. We were however concerned to find that, despite the criteria established by Circular 3/84, few seemed to include specific units covering classroom behaviour in their courses.

21 We also wrote to all 105 LEAs in England and Wales asking them about in-service training provision for teachers on the subject of classroom behaviour. From our 67 replies we discovered that a few are developing programmes based on training packages such as Preventative Approaches to Disruption (PAD) or Behavioural Approaches to Teaching Package (BATPACK). Most do not seem to provide this kind of in-service training.

22 The general lack of initial and in-service training in group management skills was confirmed by several of our expert witnesses. It is surprising given the widespread concern felt by teachers themselves about pupils' behaviour. Three out of four teachers in our survey felt that more in-service training in this area was, or might be, needed.

23 Our evidence leads us to three important conclusions. First, that teachers' group management skills are probably the single most important factor in achieving good standards of classroom behaviour. Second, that those skills can be taught and learned. Third, that practical training provision in this area is inadequate.

24 We believe that it would be a disservice to teachers not to highlight their central role in promoting good behaviour in schools and the importance of training in helping them to carry out that role. But it is important to see our recommendations in these areas in the context of the report as a whole. Teachers are entitled to expect and receive support from heads, governors, parents, LEAs and the government in this task. Throughout this report we stress the need for concerted action at classroom, school, community and national levels. Our emphasis on the role of the teacher and on training in classroom management should not be seen in isolation as an easy answer to indiscipline. They are simply important aspects of a wide range of recommendations for action by all those with an interest in improving standards of behaviour in schools.

25 We have identified six target areas for action to improve classroom management skills. They involve teachers, training establishments and LEAs. They are:

25.1 applying the principles of good classroom management;

25.2 careful selection of trainee teachers;

25.3 more specific initial training;

25.4 more specific in-service training;

25.5 better induction programmes for new teachers; and

25.6 the regular appraisal of teachers' classroom performance.

26 Our purpose is not to produce a classroom management text book, nor do we need to do so. There is no shortage of good practical guides. Some are listed in our selected bibliography (Appendix E), Many teachers and their trainers will be aware of them. We commend them to those who are not.

27 Although there are some differences in detail, there is a high degree of agreement in the literature about the main features of good practice. There is also general agreement that well organised and delivered lessons help secure good standards of behaviour. Some of the clearest messages are that teachers should:

27.1 know their pupils as individuals. This means knowing their names, their personalities and interests and who their friends are;

27.2 plan and organise both the classroom and the lesson to keep pupils interested and minimise the opportunities for disruption. This requires attention to such basics as furniture layout, grouping of pupils, matching work to pupils' abilities, pacing lessons well, being enthusiastic and using humour to create a positive classroom atmosphere;

27.3 be flexible in order to take advantage of unexpected events rather than being thrown off balance by them. Examples would include the appearance of the window cleaner or a wasp in the middle of a lesson;

27.4 continually observe or 'scan' the behaviour of the class;

27.5 be aware of, and control their own behaviour, including stance and tone of voice;

27.6 model the standards of courtesy that they expect from pupils;

27.7 emphasise the positive, including praise for good behaviour as well as good work;

27.8 make the rules for classroom behaviour clear to pupils from the first lesson and explain why they are necessary;

27.9 make sparing and consistent use of reprimands. This means being firm rather than aggressive, targeting the right pupil, criticising the behaviour and not the person, using private rather than public reprimands whenever possible, being fair and consistent, and avoiding sarcasm and idle threats;

27.10 make sparing and consistent use of punishments. This includes avoiding whole group punishment which pupils see as unfair. It also means avoiding punishments which humiliate pupils by, for example, making them look ridiculous. This breeds resentment; and

27.11 analyse their own classroom management performance and learn from it. This is the most important message of all.

Selecting trainee teachers

29 Stereotyping successful teachers is dangerous. There are men and women of all ages, backgrounds and ethnic origins who are good classroom managers. There is also scope for a variety of personal styles to flourish. But the range of suitable personalities is not infinite. In our view the potential ability to form good relationships with children based on mutual respect is an essential quality. It is not possessed by all adults and cannot necessarily be acquired by those who do not possess it.

30 We have been told that it has not been unknown for teacher training establishments to offer places to students without interviewing them. Circular 3/84 requires institutions to have 'adequate procedures for assessing whether or not candidates display the personal qualities suitable for teaching' which 'should in all cases involve a personal or group interview with each candidate being considered far admission'. We regard an interview as essential.

31 We recognise that market forces play a part in teacher recruitment and that college admissions tutors may not always have the choice of candidates they would wish for. In our judgement, however, education is better served by not filling a place than by giving an unsuitable candidate qualified teacher status for up to 40 years.

32 We recommend that initial teacher training establishments should give full weight to the personal qualities required for effective classroom management, particularly the potential ability to relate well to children, when selecting applicants. (R2)

33 We believe that careers advisers working in schools, colleges and universities also have a role to play in the process of selection by guiding suitable pupils and students towards, and others away from, teaching as a career. 34 'Pupillage', which involves a student spending some time observing the work of a school before the start of initial training is a good test of their interest in, and capacity to enjoy teaching. A number of institutions recommend or require such a period of pre-course school experience and provide guidance on how to use it. Pupillage may, however, involve considerable practical difficulties. For school leavers, the time available is restricted to the gap between the end of their public examinations and the beginning of the college or university term - a few weeks in July and September. Schools may be reluctant to release or receive students at those times. We are not therefore recommending that pupillage should become a condition of entry for initial training. But we do believe that it can be used by students to test their own ability to relate to children. We therefore recommend:

34.1 that initial teacher training establishments should encourage students to undertake a period of pupillage, or other work with children, before starting their courses; (R3.1) and

34.2 that schools should offer opportunities for intending teachers to undertake such pupillage. (R3.2)

Initial training

36 We do not pretend that better initial training offers a rapid remedy for discipline problems, but we are convinced that it can play a vital part in longer term solutions. Our evidence indicates that, for too many establishments, the general criteria set out in DES Circular 3/84 are not sufficiently detailed and specific in relation to discipline to produce the kind of systematic training in group management which is required.

37 We therefore recommend that the Secretaries of State should, when reviewing the criteria for the approval of initial teacher training courses, incorporate the following requirements:

37.1 that all courses should contain compulsory and clearly identifiable elements dealing in specific and practical terms with group management skills; (R4.1)

37.2 that these elements should aim to enhance students' skills in relating to pupils by increasing their understanding of group behaviour and the techniques available to manage it; (R4.2)

37.3 that they should involve practical learning methods, and that the skills which effective group management is based on should be an explicit part both of college work and school experience; (R4.3)

37.4 that teaching practice should be systematically used to consolidate these skills; (R4.4) and

37.5 that the development of the ability to relate well to pupils should be a key consideration in assessing a student's overall competence to teach. (R4.5)

39 It may be argued that not enough course time is available to meet this requirement. This is a question of competing priorities. Classroom management and the ability to relate to pupils are central to the teacher's job. Without them, the teacher's specialist and theoretical knowledge are useless. Time must be found by a proper ordering of priorities.

40 Initial training in group management skills should not require additional resources. It may, however, have practical implications for some training establishments. They may have to bring in outside specialists, such as good classroom teachers and educational psychologists, to train the trainers. The teacher trainers themselves will need to refresh and refine their own classroom skills. Some have not taught full-time in schools for many years. Circular 3/84 recognises this problem. It states that staff who provide training in teaching skills should have had 'recent success as teachers of the age range to which their training courses are directed, and should maintain regular and frequent experience of classroom teaching. If some members of staff cannot satisfy this requirement, the ... institution should provide them with opportunities to demonstrate their teaching effectiveness in schools, for example, by means of secondments to schools or schemes for tutor/school exchanges'. We believe that teacher training establishments must comply closely with these requirements if they are to deliver effective training in group management skills. We consider that secondments and exchanges are particularly useful methods of updating tutors' skills, and that a minimum amount of regular classroom teaching experience should be specified for tutors. We therefore recommend that, when reviewing the criteria for the approval of initial teacher training courses, the Secretaries of State should specify a minimum requirement for regular classroom teaching experience for staff providing training in teaching skills equivalent to one term in every five years. (R5)

41 We believe that schools also have an important part to play in preparing trainee teachers to manage their classes effectively. Systematic consolidation of group management skills through school experience would have practical implications for schools which receive students. The role of supervising teachers, whose classes students take, will need clarifying. So in larger schools will that of a school's professional tutor, who is responsible among other things for students and probationary teachers. Headteachers will need to ensure that suitable arrangements are made and that these roles are discharged properly.

42 We have described how teachers' traditional reluctance to talk about discipline problems or to let colleagues into their classrooms feeds into a spiral of less effective group management and mounting stress. Support from colleagues as professional equals, which we call 'peer support', is a way of breaking out of that spiral. The peer support group is a valuable resource which is as yet little used in British schools. We were impressed by accounts of its effectiveness in the Australian state of Victoria and by our observation of a similar group in action in a school in North Tyneside. A peer support group is led by a 'facilitator' who is responsible for convening the group and chairing its discussions. It meets regularly on a voluntary basis to talk about classroom management skills. The group can work on three levels. First, its discussions are a very effective form of in-service training. We were given evidence that teachers often learn more about classroom skills by talking to each other than by listening to visiting 'experts'. A peer support group provides regular opportunities for sharing experiences and skills. Second, it helps to break down the tradition of isolation by opening the classroom door. Peer support groups can develop the kind of trust and confidence which leads to mutual observation and consultancy, which involves watching and commenting on each other's teaching. This is probably the most effective method of classroom skills training available. Third, it helps to reduce occupational stress. Knowing that even the most experienced teachers can have classroom management problems and that it is acceptable to admit them is a good way of reducing stress. The feeling that it is possible to do something about those problems is even more reassuring.

43 Later in this chapter we recommend the promotion of peer support through in-service training. It would spread more quickly if new teachers arrived in schools expecting to find a peer support group. We therefore recommend that initial teacher training establishments should introduce students to the concept of peer support and its uses. (R6)

Induction programmes for new teachers

44 The HMI survey of new teachers in schools contains some worrying findings about the induction programmes provided for them. 37% of the new teachers in primary schools said they had not been observed teaching by colleagues during their first six months in post. Less than half the schools in the survey provided conditions which, in HMI's view, encouraged the full professional development of new teachers.

45 Induction programmes for new teachers seem to vary considerably between different LEAs and schools. In some, reduced timetables for probationary teachers and the existence of professional tutors can be taken for granted. In others, new teachers seem to be thrown in at the deep end.

46 We consider the deep end approach unacceptable. It is unreasonable to expect a new teacher to become fully effective in classroom management without guidance and support. We therefore recommend that LEAs should ensure that their induction programmes for new teachers take full account of the need to provide on- and off-the-job training in classroom and group management skills. (R7)

47 Every LEA and school should have a systematic induction programme for new teachers. In our view, the minimum requirements for such a programme would be:

47.1 a clear statement of the school's standards or objectives for classroom behaviour and details of the support available to the new teachers to enable them to achieve these;

47.2 in schools with more that 200 pupils, a professional tutor with responsibility for students and probationary teachers; and

47.3 reduced timetables for all first year teachers to enable them to observe lessons, visit other schools and participate in in-service training. The reduction in teaching load should be equivalent to no less than half a day per week. We recognise that this would have cost implications for LEAs in which it is not already the practice.

48.1 that governing bodies should take full account of the personal qualities of candidates when appointing or recommending the appointment of licensed teachers; (R8.1) and

48.2 that induction programmes for such teachers should be strongly reinforced with tailored in-service training, particularly in the area of classroom management. (R8.2)

In-service training

49 We have commented earlier in this chapter on the general lack of in-service training in classroom management which seems to be available. Most in-service training is funded by the Local Education Authority Training Grants Scheme (LEATGS). Total expenditure for 1989/90 is planned at £214 million. The priorities for spending most of this money (£130 million in 1989/90) are decided by LEAs. Expenditure on local priorities is 50% grant-aided by the DES or Welsh Office. Other priorities (worth £84 million in 1989/90) are decided by the Secretaries of State. These national priorities are grant-aided at 70%. We consider that providing in-service training in classroom management is of such importance to the effectiveness of schools that is should become a national priority for at least five years.

50 We therefore recommend that the management of pupil behaviour should become a national priority for funding under the Local Education Authority Training Grants Scheme from 1990/91 until at least 1994/95. (R9)

51 The main aim of this programme should be to set up in-service training groups to discuss classroom skills in schools. Its first phase should involve training school facilitators to establish such groups. These facilitators would not be trainers or instructors. They would convene and chair meetings. Training would be delivered through the groups' use of relevant materials, such as videos of typical classroom incidents, and through mutual observation and consultancy.

52 Such groups can only work properly on the basis of mutual trust. It is therefore important that they should be voluntary, and that they should be seen as genuine peer support groups. Telling a teacher in difficulty to join for 'remedial' training would damage both the individual and the group. The presence of heads and deputies could, in some schools, be inhibiting. However, if they volunteer to join after the group has become well established it could help teachers to realise that even their most senior colleagues can admit to problems and benefit from in-service training.

53 Facilitators should be experienced teachers who are able to relate well to a wide range of colleagues. The smallest primary schools may not need such structured arrangements but the majority of schools should have at least one facilitator. The programme should aim to achieve this objective in five years.

54 LEAs employ many excellent teachers who can act as trainers or facilitators. They also employ other staff who can offer valuable insights into pupil behaviour. In some authorities, educational psychologists are active in classroom management training. Education welfare officers are in a good position to see schooling from the pupil's point of view. This is an important perspective for classroom managers. Youth workers have a range of social skills for relating to young people informally, and their knowledge of rapidly changing youth sub-cultures is a valuable resource. LEAs should ensure that opportunities for joint training exist and are used.

55 Our recommendation for establishing a national in-service training programme covering the management of pupil behaviour need not require any additional expenditure by the government or LEAs. It is however open to at least two other objections.

55.1 The first is that there are other pressing needs for LEATGS spending. Why should behaviour management become a national priority? We believe that the widespread concern expressed by teachers themselves about managing pupil behaviour establishes its priority as a training target. The main LEATGS national priority for the immediate future is preparation for the introduction of the National Curriculum. We do not dispute this priority. However, the National Curriculum will not be delivered properly in disorderly classrooms.

55.2 The second is that in-service training can itself cause disruption, because it pulls teachers out of their classrooms. We discuss this problem in chapter 10. School facilitators would certainly need to be taken out of school for intensive training. However, this would only involve providing cover for one or two teachers per school for a few days. If the group itself were to be successful it would involve a high proportion of the school's staff. It is therefore impractical for it to be run on a day release basis. In the few schools where such groups exist they meet at the end of the day. The teacher's working year can now be five days longer than the pupil's. Schools may also wish to use some of the time available in these non-teaching days for this purpose.

56 Teachers need, and in good schools receive, support from senior managers (heads and deputies) and in secondary schools middle managers (heads of year or department), as well as peer support. The tradition of classroom isolation makes this difficult in two ways. Good teachers may get little or no recognition from senior staff for their achievements. This is demotivating. Professional etiquette may also leave teachers who are having difficulty to suffer regular humiliation in the classroom. Teacher appraisal is another way of opening the classroom door. Supportive appraisal schemes should improve standards of classroom management.

57 Guidance on appraisal, issued by the DES in 1988, suggests that it should help individual teachers with their professional development and career planning. More specifically it can give teachers a regular opportunity to discuss their performance with those who have management responsibility for them (eg a head of department in a secondary school), to set objectives and to identify training needs. It involves regular classroom observation, interviews and reports and covers all areas of professional competence including classroom management. Six LEAs are currently running pilot appraisal schemes funded by Education Support Grant. Evidence from the pilot schemes suggests that appraisal can encourage greater openness among teachers, which includes talking about discipline problems.

58 We therefore welcome the government's intention to require LEAs to introduce appraisal schemes covering all their teachers within a period of three or four years from September 1989. We consider that the ability to relate to pupils and the standard of classroom management should be important elements of any appraisal system. Because of the critical part played by a teachers confidence in classroom control, we would emphasise the need for appraisal to be supportive rather than threatening.

59 Some people are less well suited to teaching than others. It would be surprising if a few of these had not found their way into a workforce of over 400,000, particularly during periods of teacher shortage. The education service and individual schools continue to change. Some teachers adapt better to these changes than others. There is evidence that a small number of teachers consistently fail to achieve any degree of effective control in the classroom. This is damaging to the pupils, to their colleagues and, perhaps most of all, to themselves. Appraisal may be able to help such teachers by providing a mechanism for identifying their problems and producing plans of action to deal with them. These plans may, for example, involve training or redeployment within the school or outside it.

60 Such plans will not always succeed. There will be cases in which a teacher's performance in classroom management cannot be raised to acceptable standards. In these circumstances some teachers may choose to leave the profession. Early retirement in the interests of the service may be appropriate for some older teachers. We would encourage LEAs to make such schemes available. In the last resort, and only when it is clear that attempts to help a teacher have failed, heads and governors should recommend dismissal on the grounds of incompetence. We make a recommendation relating to this in chapter nine.

AUTHORITY AND STATUS

61 Teachers need authority to be successful classroom managers. They use three kinds of authority in differing combinations. First there is the authority that all teachers have from their status in society. This is sometimes called traditional authority. Then there is the authority that is based on personality and skills rather than official position. Finally there is the authority that goes with the job and is conferred by the law.

62 Some of our evidence suggests that the teacher's traditional authority has become less effective in recent years. This does not surprise us. Attitudes to authority generally have changed in the post-war years. This change has affected the professions, and public attitudes to them, generally. Professional status no longer inhibits complaints against those who hold it. Between 1981/2 and 1985/6 the number of consumer complaints registered against professional services more than doubled (Social Trends 1988). This change of attitude has not by-passed the consumers of education. The latest British Social Attitudes Survey (1988) found that nine out of 10 people in its national sample thought that parents and pupils respected teachers less now than 10 years ago. We conclude that the authority conferred on teachers by their position in society is significantly less than it used to be. A teacher who relies too heavily upon status to deal with challenges from pupils may therefore face particular difficulties.

63 The teaching profession's relationship with its clients has also been changed by recent history. This may in part result, as some of our expert witnesses suggested, from some of the more alarmist press reports suggesting widespread classroom chaos. But we attach much more importance to the fact that between 1985 and 1987 a total of 910,000 working days were lost as a result of the industrial dispute involving teachers, LEAs and the government.

64 We do not seek to allocate responsibility for these events. Nor do we think that the parties involved should do so. We merely observe that they occurred. We believe, however, that this period of disruption has resulted in significant damage to the status of teachers in the eyes both of parents and of pupils. Over 60% of those responding to the latest British Social Attitudes Survey thought teachers were now less dedicated to their jobs than they had been 10 years ago.

65 The damage has been greatest where the interests of pupils have been most clearly seen to suffer; where, for instance, their career prospects have been diminished by disruption of the preparation for, or administration of, examinations. Reports of school inspections carried out by HMI during this period comment on some of the damaging effects of industrial action. These include a lack of staff meetings and in-service training, uncompleted pupil records and reports, loss of contact with parent where parents' evenings were stopped, and higher absence rates for pupils. The more effective industrial action is in disrupting the education of pupils in any way, the more clearly does it fall within our terms of reference.

66 We are concerned that such events should not recur. It is not for us to decide whether the use of industrial action would or would not be in the interests of either teachers or employers at some future time. That question lies beyond our remit and must be for them to decide in the circumstances that then apply. What concerns us is that no such action shall be taken which damages the education of pupils or puts their safety or well being at risk. Such action would, we believe, reduce the standards of behaviour in schools into which we were appointed to enquire. We believe that those who teach children cannot properly take action which harms those children's interests. Such conditions have meant that teachers have had to make difficult and stressful decisions as to whether they should take industrial action or not. We recognise that this places strict limits on the forms of industrial action which should be available to those who may wish to use them. We believe that those restrictions flow naturally from the responsibilities accepted by both teachers and administrators of education. We therefore recommend that urgent consideration should be given, by all the interested parties, to establishing a framework of relationships between teachers and their employers which will reduce the risk of future industrial action to a minimum. (R10)

67 If the first source of a teacher's authority is the general one of status, the second is the particular one of his or her own personality and skills. To ensure that the right kind of people become teachers, the education service must have suitably discriminating selection procedures and an adequate supply of candidates. We discuss appointments in chapter nine and teacher supply later in this chapter.

68 We have suggested that changes in the public perception of teachers' status have had an influence both upon their authority and on their morale. Although teachers' recourse to industrial action has had a major influence on that perception, there have been other influences. Great concern has, in particular, been expressed to us about the effects of adverse publicity on both the status and the morale of teachers. It has been suggested to us that this treatment of the profession has reduced its members' authority and that it is likely to affect recruitment.

69 We share this concern. We therefore urge all those parties with a role in maintaining an effective education service to bear in mind the need to enhance the public image of the profession when making public statements about or on behalf of teachers.

70 Other positive steps should be taken. The publicity campaign mounted by the Teaching as a Career task force (TASC), which stresses the economic and social value of the work done by teachers, provides some useful examples of how the government, LEAs and teachers' professional associations can generate constructive publicity.

71 The third basis of a teacher's authority is that which is conferred by the law. This authority can be tested and challenged in the courts. For some time this has not been of critical importance, presumably because there was general agreement about the nature and validity of that authority. However, we have already noted that attitudes to professional providers of services seem to be changing. Such changes in this country often follow similar changes in the USA. We were therefore disturbed to learn that legal action by parents against the disciplining of their children is now a regular feature of the US education system and is seen by teachers there as a factor which significantly limits their authority. We also note with concern the steady increase in this country of litigation in many fields. Between 1981 and 1986 the number of civil actions started for breach of contract, for instance, increased by 50% and for negligence by 80% (Social Trends 1988).

72 We therefore thought it prudent to enquire into the basis in law of teachers' authority over their pupils. We expected to find this simply and clearly stated in an Act of Parliament. We were concerned to discover that it is not. The basis for the teachers' authority is commonly understood to be the 'in loco parentis' principle, which gives teachers the same authority over their pupils as parents have over their children. But most of the legal judgements which support this principle (eg Fitzgerald v Northcote 1865) were delivered before the introduction of compulsory education. If teachers' authority over pupils was delegated to them by parents, it would follow that parents would be able to withdraw part or all of that authority. We were advised that this question had been considered in depth after the European Court of Human Rights ruling on corporal punishment (1982). The conclusion was that the relevant case law did not support the right of parents to revoke any part of a teacher's authority. It was also concluded that the teacher's authority derives from his or her position as a teacher. The accumulation of case law is probably sufficient to inhibit litigation by parents opposed to particular actions, such as putting a child in detention, but the present legal position does not offer teachers the explicit support which we consider they should have.

73 Having taken advice, we remain uncertain that the legal basis of teachers' authority over their pupils is beyond challenge. If, as we believe, society wants teachers to have effective authority over pupils, it should make the basis and nature of that authority clear in statute.

74 The effects which a successful challenge would have on the proper conduct of schools could be very damaging until a new basis of teachers' authority had been established. We therefore recommend that the Secretaries of State should consider introducing legislation to clarify the legal basis of teachers' authority. (R11) They would need to consult widely before doing so. We consider that any such legislation could usefully establish that:

74.1 the teacher has general authority over pupils for the purpose of securing their education and well being and that of other pupils in the school and ensuring that they abide by the rules of conduct set by the school;

74.2 this authority is not delegated by the parent, but derives from the teacher's position as a teacher. In matters relating to the school, this authority overrides that of the pupil's parent;

74.3 the teacher's authority includes the right to set homework and to impose punishments for conduct contrary to the school rules which should be made known to parents and pupils. Such punishments must be reasonable and proportionate to the breach. They may include extra academic work to be completed in or out of school, tasks to assist the school in any reasonable way (including repairing damage), a requirement to stay in school beyond normal school hours (detention), withdrawal of privileges or any other reasonable punishments consistent with the school's discipline policy and the law. This authority is not intended to override the provisions of the Education (No. 2) Act 1986 covering corporal punishment. Parents must be given adequate notice of any punishment which obliges a pupil to remain in school for longer than a few minutes outside normal hours, or to take part in an activity off school premises; and

74.4 the teacher's authority extends beyond the school to any off-site activity which is a continuation or extension of schooling such as a field trip or a school journey. It also applies to other situations, such as bullying out of school, where pupils' conduct impinges on the school.

76 The proposals set out above do not represent any substantial change in the existing law. But we consider that to have these matters clearly established by statute, rather than having to be deduced from decisions of courts going back many years, would be of substantial benefit in clarifying the authority of the teacher and setting it beyond argument,

MORALE AND RECRUITMENT

77 The Interim Advisory Committee on Teachers' Pay and Conditions (IAC), reporting in March 1988, concluded that teachers' morale was low. It commented that this '... is not only - perhaps not principally - a matter of pay ... Many teachers complain of a lack of public appreciation and recognition; they feel that they have been blamed for all the faults of the education system, and expected to implement a succession of initiatives, for which resources and training are limited'.

78 We received a large number of submissions making the same points. No one suggested to us that teachers' morale had improved since the publication of the IAC report. Our evidence of difficulties with pupil behaviour simply adds to the list of reasons for demoralisation.

79 Low morale, combined with the reduced status considered earlier in this chapter, seem likely to result in reduced motivation and consequent recruitment difficulties. In any job, morale and motivation affect confidence in dealing with people and problems. We emphasise the importance of confidence for effective classroom management earlier in this chapter.

80 The recruitment of teachers to schools has less immediate effects, but its long term importance can hardly be underestimated. Earlier in this chapter we urge initial teacher training establishments to look for particular personal characteristics in aspiring teachers. In chapter nine we recommend that governing bodies look for these qualities when appointing qualified teachers. A shortage faces recruiters with the choice of leaving places unfilled or filling them with people who are below the desired standard in some respect. If the teaching force falls significantly below its planned level, those who serve in it will be placed under additional stress which may add to the difficulty of dealing with behaviour problems. If, on the other hand, the places are filled by lowering the admission standard, the quality of teaching will be reduced. This amounts to a hidden shortage, and is likely to be more damaging than lower levels of recruitment because problems will persist for as long as the unsuitable entrants continue their teaching careers. We consider it important to maintain the quality of the teaching force even at the cost of occasional under-recruitment.

81 There are at least four ways of covering unfilled posts without actually sending pupils home. These are: using supply teachers; making classes larger; using teachers outside their normal specialisms; and cutting subjects out of the curriculum. All four have serious drawbacks which may affect standards of behaviour. Supply teachers face particular difficulties because they may not know the school or the pupils. The risks of using the wrong materials or methods are greater when teaching an unfamiliar subject or age group. It is therefore very important to ensure that the supply of new teachers is adequate both generally and in specific subjects to maintain the size and quality of the teaching force at the proper levels.

82 Levels of teacher recruitment are influenced by a variety of factors including professional status, morale and pay. Able young people are unlikely to leave school wanting to be teachers if they see the job as having low status and being unrewarding. They are more likely to take this view if some of their career advice comes from demoralised teachers.

83 The IAC concluded that the number of teachers recruited in 1987 was 'just about adequate', but that there were signs that recruitment was generally becoming more difficult. One indicator of teacher supply is vacancy data. The number of secondary vacancies in January 1988, which stood at just over 2,000 posts, was equivalent to about 1% of the secondary teaching force in England and Wales. Primary vacancies were about 1.5% of the primary teaching force, or just over 2,500 posts. Our impression is that recruitment problems in certain subjects and regions are acute.

84 Longer term prospects are more worrying. Most teachers enter the profession in their early twenties. The size of this age group will decline progressively throughout the next decade. If general prospects for graduate recruitment continue to be good, the education service will face increasingly stiff competition in the labour market.

85 Status and morale are related issues. We believe that the action we suggest earlier in this chapter to improve the public image of teachers and clarify the legal basis of their authority would also improve the morale of the profession.

86 Morale and recruitment cannot be separated from pay and conditions of service. We welcome the government's view, expressed in the Secretary of State's letter to Lord Chilver of 14 September 1988, 'that school teachers' pay and conditions of service should be such as to enable the maintained school system to recruit, retain and motivate sufficient teachers of the required quality both nationally and at a local level within what can be afforded'. The letter also asked the IAC to advise on modifications 'needed to deal with subject shortages'. We recommend that the Secretaries of State and LEAs should give due weight to the serious implications of any actual or predicted teacher shortages (whether specialist, regional or general) when considering future pay levels and conditions of service for the profession. (R12)

87 Teachers are much less likely to come from minority ethnic backgrounds than their pupils. It has been suggested to us that increased recruitment from these groups could improve standards of behaviour in schools. This will not happen unless they perceive teaching as an attractive career. There are at least two good reasons for encouraging the recruitment of teachers from such backgrounds. They can provide positive role models for pupils from similar backgrounds, and reduce the risks of cultural misunderstandings between other teachers and these pupils. We consider that particular emphasis should be given to increasing minority ethnic representation in the teaching force. We therefore recommend that the Secretaries of State, LEAs, governors and headteachers should encourage the recruitment of teachers from minority ethnic backgrounds. (R13)