The Bullock Report (1975)
A language for life
Report of the Committee of Enquiry appointed by the Secretary of State for Education and Science under the Chairmanship of Sir Alan Bullock FBA
London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office 1975
© Crown copyright material is reproduced with the permission of the Controller of HMSO and the Queen's Printer for Scotland.
Preliminary pages
Foreword
by the Secretary of State for Education and Science
[page iii]
This Report deserves to be widely read. All our education depends on the understanding and effective use of English as does success in so many aspects of adult life.
The Report concerns all who have responsibilities in education. Many recommendations are addressed to schools and teachers and call for a change of approach and redirection of effort rather than for additional resources. As the Committee acknowledges, recommendations with financial implications must be subject to current constraints; for the time being action on those which would involve additional resources must be postponed. Within this limitation I hope that local authorities and teachers at all levels will look carefully at the recommendations which concern them, as my Department will at those which concern the Government.
We are all greatly indebted to Sir Alan Bullock and his colleagues. They have given us an authoritative statement which will be of value as a basis for further discussion and development for many years to come.
Reg Prentice
December 1974
[page v]
9 September 1974
Dear Secretary of State,
I have the honour to present the Report of the Committee set up by your predecessor, Mrs Thatcher, in 1972 to inquire into the teaching in the schools of reading and the other uses of English. As the Committee's Chairman I should like to place on record the great help I have received from Dame Muriel Stewart, who has acted as Vice-Chairman throughout the inquiry. The Committee's debt to its Secretary, Mr R Arnold, HMI, is acknowledged in the Introductory chapter. I should like to express here my personal appreciation of the assistance he has given to the Chairman and of the close cooperation in which we have worked.
Yours sincerely
ALAN BULLOCK
(Chairman)
The Rt. Hon. Reg. E Prentice, JP, MP.
Membership of the Committee
[pages vi - vii]
Sir Alan Bullock, FBA (Chairman), Master of St Catherine's College and Vice-Chancellor, University of Oxford.
Sister Basil Burbridge, Headmistress, St Margaret Mary Junior and Infant School, Carlisle.
Professor JN Britton, Goldsmiths' Professor of Education in the University of London.
Mr Alastair Burnet, Editor, The Economist.
Miss J Derrick, Senior Lecturer, Language Teaching Centre, University of York.
Mr JJ Fairbairn, Head of Education Department, St John's College, York.
Mr HK Fowler, Chief Education Officer, Derbyshire.
Mr Stuart Froome, Headmaster, St Jude's CE Junior School, Englefield Green, Surrey.
Mr David Gadsby, Managing Director, A & C Black Ltd, Publishers.
Mr CR Gillings, Headmaster, Midhurst Intermediate School, West Sussex (resigned 1 September 1973 on appointment to HM Inspectorate).
Mr WK Gardner, Lecturer, School of Education, University of Nottingham.
Mrs DMR Hutchcroft, OBE, Headmistress, Saltford Primary School, Bristol.
Miss AM Johns, Headmistress, Henry Fawcett Infant School, London SE11.
Mr D Mackay, Adviser/Warden, Centre for Language in Primary Education, Inner London Education Authority (resigned 1 November 1972 on appointment to a post in the West Indies).
Mr Michael Marland, Headmaster, Woodberry Down Secondary School, London N4.
Professor JE Merritt, Professor of Educational Studies, Open University.
Mr AJ Puckey, Primary Adviser, Nottinghamshire LEA.
Mrs V Southgate Booth, Senior Lecturer in Curriculum Studies, School of Education, University of Manchester.
Dame Muriel Stewart, DBE, Chairman, Schools Council.
Professor J Wrigley, Professor of Curriculum Research and Development, University of Reading; Director of Studies, Schools Council.
Mr R Arnold, HMI, Secretary.
Mrs GW Dishart, Assistant Secretary.
Appointments shown are those held by members at the time the Committee was constituted.
The estimated cost of the production of the Report is £95,900, of which £14,700 represents the estimated cost of printing and publication, £68,700 the cost of administration, and £12,500 the travelling and other expenses of members.
Table of Contents
[pages ix - xxiv]
INTRODUCTION: The scope and nature of the Inquiry; and acknowledgements
PLAN OF THE REPORT
PART ONE: ATTITUDES AND STANDARDS
CHAPTER 1: ATTITUDES TO THE TEACHING OF ENGLISH
Dissatisfaction with standards of English 1.1-1.3
Opposing views of English teaching 1.4-1.8
The needs of English teaching 1.9-1.10
CHAPTER 2: STANDARDS OF READING
Definitions of literacy 2.1-2.2
Comparisons with other countries 2.3
The extent of adult illiteracy 2.4
The influence of television on reading 2.5-2.9
The opinion of witnesses 2.10
Comparisons with pre-war standards 2.11
The NFER Surveys 2.12-2.21
The limitations of the Watts-Vernon and NS6 tests 2.13-2.16
The sampling of the 1971 survey 2.17
The interpretation of the results 2.18-2.21
The results of local surveys 2.22-2.23
Reading achievement and social class 2.24-2.25
The reading standards of seven year olds 2.26-2.28
The reading standards of eleven and fifteen year olds: a summary 2.29
Implications for action 2.30
ANNEX: The 'ceiling effect' of reading tests 2.31-2.34
CHAPTER 3: MONITORING
The value of monitoring national standards of literacy 3.1-3.2
The criteria for a monitoring procedure 3.3-3.5
The setting up of the procedure 3.5
The age at which monitoring should be applied 3.6
The nature of the proposed reading tests 3.7-3.8
The monitoring of standards of writing 3.9-3.12
The feasibility of monitoring spoken English 3.13
The principle of the question pool and light sampling 3.14-3.23
The question pool 3.15-3.18
Light sampling 3.19-3.21
The administration of the tests 3.21
Selective application in certain areas 3.22
The work of the survey team 3.23
Preparatory research and development work 3.24-3.25
PART TWO: LANGUAGE IN THE EARLY YEARS
CHAPTER 4: LANGUAGE AND LEARNING
Language and inner representation 4.1-4.4
Language and thought 4.5-4.8
Language and discovery 4.8-4.10
CHAPTER 5: LANGUAGE IN THE EARLY YEARS
The acquisition of language 5.1-5.3
The influence of the home on language development 5.4-5.9
Study of young children's language needs by secondary school pupils 5.11-5.13
Methods of helping parents to play a part in their children's language development in the home 5.14-5.20
The ante-natal clinic 5.14
Home visiting 5.15-5.18
Television programmes 5.19-5.20
Early language experience in school 5.21-5.32
Talk and early writing 5.21-5.23
Language programmes 5.24-5.29
The teacher's appraisal and aims 5.30-5.32
The case for additional adults in school to help in children's language development 5.32-5.41
The guiding principles 5.32
The role of trained aides 5.33-5.36
The role of nursery nurses 5.33-5.36
The participation of parents 5.37-5.40
The implications for accommodation 5.41
Home-school liaison 5.42
The implications for staffing ratios 5.43
PART THREE: READING
CHAPTER 6: THE READING PROCESS
Controversies about the teaching of reading 6.1-6.3
The definition of reading 6.4-6.6
The Primary Skills 6.7-6.26
Letter and word perception 6.7-6.12
Learning to recognise letters 6.13-6.15
The relationship between sounds and letters: problems and solutions 6.16-6.26
The Intermediate Skills 6.27-6.38
Learning to anticipate 6.28-6.35
Letter and phoneme sequences 6.28-6.31
Word and syntactic sequences 6.32-6.34
Meaning and the use of context cues 6.35
Using the intermediate skills in combination 6.36
The use of Cloze procedure 6.37
Anticipation and the vocabulary of reading schemes 6.38
Comprehension skills 6.39-6.41
Literal comprehension 6.40
Re-organisation 6.40
Inferential comprehension 6.41
Evaluation and appreciation 6.41
Flexible reading strategies 6.42
Acquiring and organising information: general implications 6.43-6.44
CHAPTER 7: READING IN THE EARLY YEARS
The pre-reading stages: the parent's role 7.1-7.6
Bringing books into the home 7.2-7.5
Voluntary efforts; radio and television 7.2
The contribution of the Children's Librarian 7.3
The role of the school 7.4-7.5
Reading readiness 7.7-7.11
The notion of mental age 7.7
The criterion of intelligence 7.8
Vision and hearing 7.9-7.10
The guiding principles 7.11
The early stages: general principles 7.12
Building up a sight vocabulary 7.13-7.15
Interaction between the child's reading and writing 7.13-7.14
The use of a word bank 7.15
Reading schemes: criteria for selection 7.16-7.20
Content and attitudes 7.17
The language they use 7.18-7.19
Reading schemes: their use 7.21-7.25
General principles 7.21-7.22
Look and Say schemes 7.23
Phonic schemes 7.24
Reading schemes in perspective 7.25
Colour coding and diacritical marking 7.26
The Initial Teaching Alphabet (i.t.a.) 7.27-7.29
The organisation of reading activities in the classroom 7.30-7.32
CHAPTER 8: READING: THE LATER STAGES
Reading in the middle and secondary years: the objectives 8.1-8.5
Reading as a specialist subject: the arguments 8.6-8.8
Reading throughout the curriculum 8.9
Reading for learning 8.10-8.19
The reader's purposes 8.12
The organisation of reading and the use of bibliographical skills 8.13
Effective reading 8.14-8.18
Literal comprehension 8.15
Inferential comprehension 8.16
Evaluative comprehension 8.17
Flexible reading strategies 8.18
Self-assessment and development 8.19
Preparation for the reading needs of adult life 8.20
CHAPTER 9: LITERATURE
The value of literature 9.1-9.3
The need to expand voluntary reading 9.4 -9.11
The teacher's record of the pupils' reading 9.5
The balance between narrative and information books in school 9.6
Promoting interest in books 9.7-9.8
The availability of good fiction 9.9
'Relevance' in children's books 9.10
Approaches to literature in school 9.12-9.21
The influence of examinations: negative and positive 9.13-9.14
Literature in thematic work: disadvantages and strengths 9.15-9.18
The teacher's knowledge of literature 9.18
Individual reading and class reading 9.19-9.21
The value of poetry 9.22
Approaches to poetry in school 9.23-9.27
The teacher's knowledge of poetry, and the collection of resources 9.25-9.26
Literature and the influence of the teacher 9.28
PART FOUR: LANGUAGE IN THE MIDDLE AND SECONDARY YEARS
CHAPTER 10: ORAL LANGUAGE
TALKING AND LISTENING: 10.1-10.31
Teacher-pupil dialogue in the classroom: nature and characteristics 10.1-10.4
The teacher's understanding and evaluation of oral language 10.5-10.9
Accent and 'correctness' 10.5-10.6
The differences between speech and writing 10.7-10.9
The improvement of pupils' oral language ability 10.10-10.15
Language as an instrument of learning 10.10
The teacher's role 10.11
Exploratory talk in small groups 10.11-10.12
Oral work in larger groups 10.13-10.14
The value of discussion 10.15-10.18
The Humanities Curriculum Project 10.16-10.18
Listening 10.19-10.21
The quality of listening 10.19
The improvement of pupils' listening 10.20
Listening exercises: their disadvantages 10.21
Resources for oral work in schools 10.22-10.23
Continuity and development in pupils' oral language 10.24
Examinations in oral language 10.25-10.29
Variety of syllabuses 10.26
Disadvantages and advantages 10.27-10.29
Research and development work by teachers 10.29
Oral language: implications for adult life 10.30
DRAMA: 10.31-10.42
Approaches to drama in schools 10.31-10.33
The value of drama for language development 10.33-10.38
The qualifications of drama teachers in secondary schools 10.39
Examinations in drama 10.40
Drama in secondary schools: some discussion points 10.41-10.42
CHAPTER 11: WRITTEN LANGUAGE
INTRODUCTION: 11.1
Language use and language study: general principles 11.1
WRITING: 11.2-11.14
Varieties of writing in schools 11.2 -11.8
The writer and his 'audience' 11.9
Marking and correction of writing 11.10-11.11
The teaching of spelling 11.12-11.14
A policy for spelling; consultation between teachers 11.14
LANGUAGE STUDY: 11.15-11.40
Language study: definitions 11.15
The prescriptive view of language 11.16-11.17
The use of exercises 11.18-11.20
Improvement in language competence 11.21-11.25
The need for explicit instruction 11.21
Strategies for progress 11.22-11.25
Linguistics and language teaching 11.26-11.29
'Language in Use' 11.27-11.29
Examinations in written language 11.30-11.40
The case for examinations 11.31-11.32
The slowness of change 11.32-11.33
GCE O Level: some developments 11.34
CSE 11.35-11.37
Examinations in language: general principles 11.38-11.39
Language at A Level or its equivalent 11.40
ANNEX A: Spelling 11.41-11.49
Causes of poor spelling 11.42-11.43
The use of spelling lists 11.44-11.47
Spelling: caught or taught? 11.48
The findings of the survey 11.49
ANNEX B: Handwriting 11.50-11.55
Concern for handwriting standards 11.50
Handwriting in primary schools: the survey results 11.50
Criteria for guidance 11.51-11.54
Models of handwriting: some arguments reviewed 11.52
Materials, techniques, and the need for practice 11.53
The development of speed and style 11.54
The appearance and presentation of written work: its importance to the process of writing 11.55
CHAPTER 12: LANGUAGE ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
The general principles 12.1-12.2
The primary school 12.3
The secondary school 12.4-12.8
Language use within subjects 12.4 -12.8
Talk and writing as a means to learning 12.5-12.7
Reading as a means to learning 12.7-12.8
The teacher's own use of language 12.9
A language policy across the curriculum: some developments 12.10
The organisation of a language policy across the curriculum 12.11-12.12
PART FIVE: ORGANISATION
CHAPTER 13: THE PRIMARY AND MIDDLE YEARS
Pre-school provision 13.1-13.2
Cooperation between infant school, nursery, playgroup and home 13.3
The organisation of primary schools: introduction 13.4
Vertical grouping and the integrated day: the arguments reviewed 13.5-13.7
Vertical grouping and teaching methods: the findings of the survey 13.8-13.10
Organisation in the primary and middle years: the guiding principles 13.11-13.15
The size of classes 13.16-13.17
Accommodation 13.18
The staffing of the schools 13.19-13.23
The need for additional staff in special circumstances 13.19-13.21
The teacher with responsibility for language and reading 13.22-13.23
The role of the head of the school 13.24
CHAPTER 14: CONTINUITY BETWEEN SCHOOLS
Infant and First School - Junior and Middle School 14.1-14.6
Cooperation between schools: the guiding principles 14.1-14.2
Contacts between teachers 14.3
The transmission of information, records and examples of work 14.4-14.5
A common policy for reading 14.6
Junior and Middle School - Secondary School 14.7-14.16
Cooperation between schools: general 14.7
The transmission of information, records and examples of work 14.8-14.11
Expectations of pupil achievement 14.12
Contacts between teachers 14.13
Contacts between pupils 14.14-14.15
Continuity and liaison: the urgency 14.16
CHAPTER 15: THE SECONDARY SCHOOL
Specialist English and the integrated approach 15.1-15.9
English in integrated studies 15.2-15.4
English as a separate subject 15.5
Specialism and integration: the guiding principles 15.6 -15.7
Reading as a specialised activity? 15.8
Drama as a separate subject? 15.9
Pupil grouping 15.10-15.12
Streaming, setting, and mixed ability teaching: the findings of the survey 15.10
Pupil grouping: the guiding principles 15.10-15.12
The staffing situation 15.13-15.14
The teachers of English: the findings of the survey 15.13-15.14
The qualifications of English teachers 15.14
The involvement of teachers of other subjects 15.14
Timetabling: the effects upon English teaching 15.15-15.16
The Head of English Department 15.17-15.19
The head of English department: role and responsibilities 15.17
The head of English department: pressures and problems 15.18
The head of English department: supply and support 15.19
Clerical and ancillary help for the English department 15.20
Accommodation and facilities for the teaching of English 15.21-15.26
The allocation of rooms: the findings of the survey 15.21
Accommodation and facilities: the guiding principles 15.22-15.25
Consultation in the design of accommodation 15.26
Classroom control: implications for methods of English teaching 15.27
English teaching: an instrument of policy 15.28-15.30
The role of the head of the school 15.31
CHAPTER 16: LEA ADVISORY SERVICES
English Advisers: inadequacy of present provision 16.1-16.2
Advisory support: a definition of need 16.3
The concept of an English advisory team 16.3-16.10
Membership of the team 16.3-16.6
The importance of an English specialist adviser 16.5
The appointment of advisory teachers 16.6
The adviser for language of children of families of overseas origin 16.7
The activities of the team 16.8-16.10
PART SIX: READING AND LANGUAGE DIFFICULTIES
CHAPTER 17: SCREENING, DIAGNOSIS, AND RECORDING
SCREENING 17.1-17.14
A definition of screening 17.1-17.2
The extent of present measures 17.3
Screening: the arguments reviewed 17.4-17.6
The age at which screening should be carried out 17.5-17.7
The nature of the screening procedure 17.8-17.14
Systematic observation in the infant school 17.8
Information from the pre-school stage 17.10
The 'at risk' register and the individual profile: relative merits 17.11
The transmission of screening records 17.12
The application of a standardised test: the arguments reviewed 17.13
Testing: the guiding principles 17.13-17.14
DIAGNOSIS AND RECORDING: 17.15-17.25
The case for continuous diagnosis 17.15
Current practices in diagnosis: the findings of the survey 17.16-17.18
The use of the word recognition test 17.16
The use of the graded reading scheme 17.17
Hearing children read 17.18
The value of the informal reading inventory 17.19-17.20
Structured observation and recording 17.21
The use of check-lists 17.21
The use of diagnostic tests 17.22
Teacher, educational psychologist and doctor: a team approach to diagnosis 17.23-17.24
In-service training in diagnostic techniques 17.24
The outcomes of diagnosis 17.25
ANNEX A: Results of an inquiry into assessment procedures applied by Local Authorities 17.26-17.33
ANNEX B: Descriptions of three different forms of screening procedure 17.34-17.36
CHAPTER 18: CHILDREN WITH READING DIFFICULTIES
Relevance of other chapters to this subject 18.1
Backwardness and retardation 18.2
The notion of failure 18.3
The need for a systematic approach to reading 18.4
The extent of the problem 18.4
Factors influencing reading retardation 18.5 -18.9
Intelligence 18.6
Emotional disorders 18.7
Social handicap 18.8
Unevenness of local provision 18.9
Effectiveness of 'remedial education' 18.10-18.12
Some research findings 18.10-18.11
The factors essential for success 18.12
Patterns of organisation of remedial help in school 18.13-18.17
The variety of provision in primary schools 18.13
The relationship between remedial help and the general curriculum 18.14
The variety of provision in secondary schools: 18.15-18.17
Guiding principles 18.16
Resources and responsibilities for 'slow learners' 18.17
Remedial help provided outside the school 18.18
Provision for the child with special difficulties 18.18
The work of reading centres and clinics 18.18
Staffing of the centres and clinics 18.18
LEA Advisory Service 18.18
Conclusion 18.19
The implications for social action 18.19
The importance of preventive measures 18.19
CHAPTER 19: ADULT ILLITERACY
The problems of the illiterate and semiliterate school leaver 19.1-19.3
The tasks identified 19.2
The reasons adults give for seeking help 19.4
The growth of recognition of the problem 19.5
The difficulties of estimating the number in need 19.5
The need for information and guidance for those requiring help 19.6-19.7
The schools 19.6
Press, radio, and television 19.7
Social agencies and others 19.7
Coordination of information 19.7
Existing provision 19.8
LEA classes 19.8
Voluntary schemes 19.8
Other 19.8
Group instruction: some problems 19.9-19.10
The need for privacy 19.11
The strengthening of provision 19.11-19.13
Financial help for voluntary schemes 19.11
The role of local authorities 19.12
Flexibility of tuition arrangements: individual and group 19.12
The training needs of tutors 19.13
The special requirements of immigrants 19.14
Implications for materials, research and evaluation 19.15
The need for centrally collected information 19.15
Conclusion: implications for action at school and afterwards 19.16
CHAPTER 20: CHILDREN FROM FAMILIES OF OVERSEAS ORIGIN
Children from families of overseas origin: the present position 20.1-20.2
The assessment of need 20.2
The variety of individual problems 20.3
The long-term problems 20.4-20.5
Poor attainment: survey findings 20.4
Cultural identity 20.5
Implications for book provision: ethnic bias 20.5
The language needs of immigrant children 20.6-20.9
West Indians - Creole dialect 20.6-20.8
Children for whom English is a second language 20.9
Problems of teacher supply and training 20.9
Organisation of language teaching 20.10-20.12
Some guiding principles 20.10
Second level language learning 20.11
Lack of sustained language help: staffing implications 20.11
Need for language help across the curriculum 20.12
The role of advisers in immigrant language development 20.13
Special provision within nursery and infant classes 20.14
Teacher training implications 20.15
Communication between school and home 20.15-20.16
The role of members of minority communities 20.16
Bilingualism 20.17
Implications for schools 20.17
Need for further study 20.17
PART SEVEN: RESOURCES
CHAPTER 21: BOOKS
The printed word 21.1
Book provision in primary schools 21.2-21.6
A book policy for the school 21.3-21.6
Sources of information about books 21.4-21.5
Exhibitions and educational book rooms 21.4
A teacher with responsibility for books 21.5
Organisation 21.6
The School Library Service 21.7-21.11
Examples of its work 21.8
Consultation and cooperation between teachers and librarians: joint activities 21.9
Expansion under local government reorganisation 21.10
Pupils' need for continuity of book provision between the different stages of schooling 21.11
Libraries in secondary schools 21.12-21.16
Staffing and accommodation 21.12
Task of the librarian; joint courses for teacher-librarians; dual qualifications 21.13-21.14
Resource Centres 21.15-21.16
Standards of book provision 21.16-21.18
Expenditure on books 21.18-21.27
AEC recommended levels 21.18-21.19
Capitation allowances 21.20-21.23
Problems of resource allocation 21.23
Small schools 21.23-21.25
A standing working party 21.25
The effects of inflation, and of cuts in government expenditure 21.26-21.27
CHAPTER 22: TECHNOLOGICAL AIDS AND BROADCASTING
The use of technological aids: guiding principles 22.1
Advantages of technological aids 22.2
Technical support for teachers 22.3
The production of materials 22.3
Implications for teacher training 22.4
The tape recorder 22.5-22.6
Machines for teaching reading 22.7
The use of film 22.8-22.10
Reprographic facilities 22.11
The extent of provision required: some criteria for guidance 22.12
Educational broadcasting 22.13-22.24
Radio: national and local 22.13
Teacher participation in programme production 22.13
General output television: its use in school 22.14
Educational television 22.15-22.16
Use of videotape recorders 22.17
Problems of copyright and performing rights restrictions: need for revision 22.18
Need for research and evaluation of output 22.19
Finance 22.20
The need for more programmes for (i) parents and young children (ii) children with learning difficulties 22.21
'Sesame Street' and 'The Electric Company': implications for British programmes 22.22-22.23
The use of general output television to stimulate interest in language and and literacy 22.24
PART EIGHT: TEACHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING
CHAPTER 23: INITIAL TRAINING
The present situation 23.1-23.5
Existing provision for language and reading 23.2-23.5
Inadequacy of present provision 23.2-23.3
Variations between colleges 23.4
Conflicting demands upon time: the influence of academic studies 23.4
The lack of coordination between theory and practice 23.5
Some current developments 23.6-23.7
Cooperation between colleges and schools 23.8-23.9
Practical experience with children 23.8
The appointment of teacher-tutors 23.9
A language course for all intending teachers 23.10-23.11
A summary of recommendations for the language knowledge required of all teachers 23.10
The nature of the course 23.11
One year post-graduate certificate courses 23.13-23.18
Language requirements in the PGCE year 23.14-23.16
Some methods of work on language in PGCE 23.17-23.18
Language and the Diploma in Higher Education 23.19-23.20
One year training following the award of DipHE 23.19-23.20
Need for a substantial language course 23.19-23.20
Implications for staffing and resources 23.21-23.22
Need for lecturers qualified in language and reading 23.21
Lack of suitable accommodation and ancillary help 23.22
Improvement of the students' own language ability 23.23
Two examples of the proposed language course 23.25-23.26
CHAPTER 24 IN-SERVICE EDUCATION
The unity of initial and in-service education 24.1
Aspects of the induction year 24.1-24.3
The primary school teacher 24.2
The secondary school teacher 24.3
Methods of in-service education 24.4
Innovation in education 24.4
The school-based approach to in-service education 24.5
The responsibility of the head of the English department 24.6
Availability of courses in reading and language 24.7-24.8
Numbers of courses 24.7
Teachers' comments 24.8
Provision of courses: need for variety of approaches 24.9
Regional courses: ATO-DES courses 24.10
Need for more regional courses in English 24.10
Full-time courses
Opportunities for secondment 24.11
Higher level courses 24.12
Open University 24.13
Importance of adequate numbers of teachers with advanced training 24.14
Proposals for a progressive programme of training 24.14
Role of the LEA English advisory team 24.15
The development of language/reading centres 24.16
Relationship with professional centres 24.17
A national centre for language in education 24.18
Guiding principles 24.18
Proposed activities 24.18
Considerations for siting and funding 24.18
PART NINE: THE SURVEY
CHAPTER 25: THE SURVEY
I Introduction 25.1-25.14
II Primary Commentary 25.15-25.23
III Secondary Commentary 25.24-25.31
IV Questionnaire Tables 25.32 [not online]
V Technical Notes 25.33-25.41 [not online]
PART TEN: SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
CHAPTER 26 SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Principal recommendations
Conclusions and recommendations
A note on research
NOTE OF EXTENSION by Professor JN Britton
NOTE OF DISSENT by Mr Stuart Froome
APPENDIX A: LIST OF WITNESSES AND SOURCES OF EVIDENCE
APPENDIX B: VISITS MADE
GLOSSARY
INDEX
List of Tables and Diagrams
[pages xxv - xxx]
TABLES
1 Watts-Vernon Test (Maintained Schools and Direct Grant Grammar Schools). Comparable mean scores with standard errors for pupils aged 15.0 years
2 NS6 Test (Maintained Schools only). Comparable mean scores with standard errors for pupils aged 15.0 years
3 Watts-Vernon Test (Maintained Schools only). Comparable mean scores with standard errors for pupils aged 11.0 years, since 1948
4 NS6 Test (Maintained Schools only). Comparable mean scores with standard errors for pupils aged 11 years 2 months, since 1955
5 Improvised drama in classes with 6 and 9 year old children
6 Ways of teaching reading - Approaches used with 6 year old children in vertically grouped and non-vertically grouped classes
7 The frequency with which teachers hear children read - 6 year olds and 9 year olds - in vertically grouped and non-vertically grouped classes
8 The frequency of reading practice - 6 year old and 9 year old children - in vertically grouped and non-vertically grouped classes
9 Records of reading and writing by 6 year old and 9 year old children - in vertically grouped and non-vertically grouped classes
10 Distribution of class size for 6 year old and 9 year old pupils
11 Qualifications of teachers teaching English in secondary schools, as supplied by the heads of the schools
12 Allocation of rooms for English in secondary schools
13 LEA advisory services in England: distribution of advisory posts by subject
14 Number of occasions on which 6 and 9 year olds read to the teacher in a week, by reading ability of the pupils
15 Assessment of reading ability by LEAs - Age at which pupils were tested and number of instances
16 Assessment of reading ability by LEAs - Varieties of tests and incidence of use
17 Assessment of reading ability by LEAs - Percentages of children assessed as having reading difficulties
18 Capitation and book allowances to primary schools - 1972/73 recommended figures of AEC
19 Capitation and book allowances to secondary schools - 1972/73 recommended figures of AEC
20 Formula for additional allowance to small schools - example of policy of one LEA
21 Number of teachers attending in-service training courses during the year 1966/67
The tables listed below are all contained in Part Nine - The Survey:
22 Size and response characteristics of the survey sample of schools compared with the total population of schools from which it was drawn
23 Total time devoted to teaching English in secondary schools
PRIMARY
24 Size and type of schools in the sample
25 Organisation of classes - Vertical Grouping
26 Number of teachers and above-scale posts
27 Schools which made use of a Teachers' Centre in connection with the teaching of English
28 Attendance by teachers of 6 and 9 year olds at courses on aspects of English teaching
29 Associations concerned with reading and the teaching of English, etc.
30 Methods of teaching reading to 6 year olds
31 Methods of teaching reading to 6 year olds in vertically grouped and non-vertically grouped classes
32 Media and schemes etc. used in the teaching of reading, by size of school
33 Media and schemes etc. used in the teaching of reading, by type of school
34 Number of occasions on which 6 and 9 year olds read to the teacher in a week, in vertically grouped and non-vertically grouped classes
35 Loan of books by the LEA/County/County Borough Library to primary and secondary schools
36 Incidence of audio-visual aids by size of school
37 Incidence of audio-visual aids by type of school
38 Testing of children with published reading tests, by type of school
39 Use of different reading tests, by size of school
40 Classes, groups or individual tuition in reading outside registration classes, by type of school
41 Special registration classes for poor readers
42 Special help given to children with low scores on reading tests, by type of school
43 Teacher rating of reading ability - 6 and 9 year olds
44 Number of teachers by whom 6 and 9 year olds are taught in a week, according to reading ability
45 Attendance at relevant courses by teachers of withdrawal groups or classes
46 Number of books in the possession of 6 and 9 year olds, according to reading ability
47 Variety of writing by 6 and 9 year olds, according to reading ability
48 Time spent on poetry and verse by 6 and 9 year olds
49 Time spent listening to stories by 6 and 9 year olds
50 Time spent on oral English by 6 and 9 year olds
51 Time spent on improvised drama by 6 and 9 year olds
52 Time spent on writing by 6 and 9 year olds
53 Time spent on topics by 6 and 9 year olds
54 Time spent on individual reading of stories by 6 and 9 year olds
55 Time spent on reading practice by 6 and 9 year olds
56 Time spent on comprehension and vocabulary exercises by 6 and 9 year olds
57 Time spent on language work by 6 and 9 year olds
58 Time spent on spelling by 6 and 9 year olds
59 Time spent on handwriting by 6 and 9 year olds
60 Percentage of schools with teachers in excess of number of registration classes, by size of school
61 Distribution of peripatetic teachers by size of school
62 Percentage of schools using particular items of audio-visual equipment in connection with the teaching of English
SECONDARY
63 The sample secondary schools
64 Secondary school organisation of English teaching
65 Comparison of class sizes of remedial and other classes - 12 and 14 year olds
66 Time spent on English by 12 and 14 year olds
67 Number of periods of English per week for 12 and 14 year olds
68 English lessons over one hour in duration for 12 and 14 year olds
69 Time allocated to homework in a week for 12 and 14 year olds
70 Amount of time spent by teachers in English teaching, by size and type of school
71 Number of teachers by whom 12 and 14 year olds are taught English in a week
72 Qualifications of teachers teaching English, as supplied by the heads of the schools
73 Topics and duration of courses attended by teachers of English during the 3 years to January 1973
74 Associations concerned with reading and the teaching of English etc.
75 Reading ability of 12 and 14 year olds as assessed by teachers
76 Time spent on English by 12 and 14 year olds, according to reading ability
77 Qualifications of teachers teaching English to 12 and 14 year olds, according to pupils' reading ability
78 Qualifications of teachers teaching English to 12 and 14 year olds, by type of class
79 Allocation of rooms for English, by size and type of school
80 Number of periods in a week when the library was timetabled for other than library use
81 Provision of library books
82 Audio-visual equipment available for the teaching of English
83 Testing of reading attainment by standardised reading tests
84 Use of different reading tests
85 Size of classes of 12 and 14 year olds
86 Comparison of time spent on English in a week by remedial and other Classes - 12 and 14 year olds
87 Special provision for 12 and 14 year olds with reading and language difficulties
88 Special provision considered necessary and special provision actually made for 12 and 14 year olds with reading and language difficulties
89 Methods of making special provision for 12 and 14 year olds with reading and language difficulties
90 Attendance by teachers at courses on remedial education
91 Time spent on different English activities by type of class - 12 and 14 year olds
92 Proportion of time spent by 12 and 14 year olds on copying and reproductive work and written corrections, by type of class
93 Categories of language activity
94 Proportions of time spent by 12 and 14 year old pupils on comprehension, vocabulary work, and grammar, by type of class
95 Proportions of time spent on different kinds of reading activity, by type of class - 12 and 14 year olds
96 English activities of 12 and 14 year olds, by type of class
97 English activities of 12 and 14 year olds, by type of class II
TECHNICAL NOTES [not online]
98 Range of percentages within which there is a 95 per cent chance that the population percentage will lie
99 Percentage differences between two samples from the same population that could be given by 5 per cent of pairs of samples
100 A comparison of the distribution of the types of school in the sample and in the total in England
101 A comparison of the regional distribution of schools in the sample and in the total in England
102 A comparison of the average size of school in the sample and average size of school in England
103 A comparison of the sizes of school in the sample and in the total in England
104 A comparison of the pupil-teacher ratio of schools in the sample and in the total in England
DIAGRAMS
1 Movement of distributions of scores showing no ceiling effect
2 Movement of cumulative distribution of scores showing no ceiling effect
3 Movement of distribution of scores showing a ceiling effect
4 Movement of cumulative distribution of scores showing a ceiling effect
5 Scores in the reading tests of 1948-70 inclusive (11 year old pupils in maintained schools)
6 Scores in the reading tests of 1948-71 inclusive (15 year old pupils in maintained schools)
7 NS6 score distributions for 11 and 15 year olds in Northern Ireland
8 Percentile distribution of scores for 15 year olds in all maintained schools in England, 1971
9 Pattern of pupil participation in a class discussion
10 Methods of grouping for the teaching of English in the sample secondary schools - 12 and 14 year olds
11 Proportions of time spent by teachers in English teaching, by type of school
12 Average number of library books per pupil in secondary schools
The diagrams listed below are all contained in Part Nine - The Survey:
13 Histograms showing sizes of classes of 6 and 9 year olds
14 Histograms showing sizes of English teaching groups for 12 and 14 year olds
15 Methods of grouping for the teaching of English in the sample secondary schools - 12 and 14 year olds
16 Language activity by type of class - 12 and 14 year olds
Introduction
The scope and nature of the inquiry; and acknowledgements
[pages xxxi - xxxiv]
The decision to set up the Committee of Inquiry was announced shortly after the publication of the NFER Report The Trend of Reading Standards, and it was understandable that it should be widely regarded as an inquiry solely into reading. This was reflected in much press and public comment and in many of the letters we received. In fact it will be seen from our terms of reference that reading was not singled out for special attention but was placed in close association with other language skills within the context of teaching the use of English:
'To consider in relation to schools:
(a) all aspects of teaching the use of English, including reading, writing, and speech;
(b) how present practice might be improved and the role that initial and in-service training might play;
(c) to what extent arrangements for monitoring the general level of attainment in these skills can
be introduced or improved;
and to make recommendations.'
These terms of reference have allowed us to base our Report on the important principle that reading must be seen as part of a child's general language development and not as a discrete skill which can be considered in isolation from it. We have, in fact, interpreted our brief as language in education, and have ranged from the growth of language and reading ability in young children to the teaching of English in the secondary school. Indeed, we felt it necessary to begin with the years before a child comes to school and to examine the influence of the home on early language development.
It was obvious that we should have to consider some limits to our field of inquiry. We therefore decided to go as far as, but not beyond, the statutory age for leaving school. This means that apart from a reference to examinations in language we have excluded any specific consideration of sixth form work and higher and further education. At the same time we felt a particular concern about the needs of those pupils who leave school unable to read, and we have accordingly stretched our brief to include observations on adult illiteracy. We felt equal concern about the language problems of children from families of overseas origin and have included a chapter on their special needs. A good deal of our time was naturally spent in discussing the difficulties of children who are retarded in reading, but we have confined our attention to pupils being educated in ordinary schools. Our inquiry did not extend to children receiving special educational treatment in separate schools.
It became clear to us from our early discussions and from the evidence we received that we must give attention to the provision of resources and to the internal organisation of schools, since both have an important bearing on the development of language and the teaching of reading. Our first thought was to deal separately with primary and secondary education, allocating a part of the Report to each. We chose instead a form of presentation which would emphasise the continuity of English teaching, and this is explained in the plan of chapters which follows this introduction. Finally, we had to decide how far to go in discussing examinations. To have made a series of detailed recommendations about form and content would have extended our inquiry beyond what was practicable. At the same time it would have been unrealistic to leave examinations out of account, not least because they play a very large part in the experience of English of many pupils in the later years. We have therefore looked at some aspects of present examinations in English and at their influence on teaching and have given our views on the direction they ought to take.
Like many Committees before us, no doubt, we are anxious that the Report should be read and considered as a whole. Though individual chapters deal with given topics they are not intended to be self-contained, and those topics depend for their proper understanding on a knowledge of the background from which they emerge. This is particularly true of reading, not only for the reason we have already stated but because references to different aspects of the teaching of reading occur in various places throughout the Report. One of our main arguments is that there is no one method, medium, approach, device, or philosophy that holds the key to the process of learning to read. We believe that an essential condition for bringing about an improvement is a recognition that there is no simple nostrum and above all no substitute for a thorough understanding of all the factors at work. It is for this reason that we have made a policy of entering in places into considerable technical detail. We regard this kind of descriptive account as essential to an inquiry of this nature, since the Report is addressed to a wide audience. It is addressed in fact to all who are professionally engaged in education and to many more who have an interest in it - from parents to publishers. If there is one particular group, however, who have been in the forefront of our thinking it is the teachers in the schools. The quality of learning is fashioned in the day to day atmosphere of the classroom through the knowledge, intuitions and skill of individual teachers. Whatever else the Report may achieve we regard its first purpose as a support for them.
Throughout our work we have been made aware of the great public interest in the matters we have been investigating. From this point of view the setting up of an inquiry could hardly have been better timed. From two other points of view, however, the administrative and the financial, the publication of the Report comes at an awkward moment. The reform of local government has altered the shape and composition of many Authorities. Moreover, change is going forward in the structure of teacher training following the publication of the James Report and the subsequent White Paper Education: A Framework for Expansion. With so much in a state of transition it has not always been easy to give our recommendations - for example in relation to professional centres and in-service training - the precision we should have wished. We hope, however, that the unsettling effects of change will be more than compensated for by the opportunities it creates to review existing practices. The financial circumstances of the country at the time when we were formulating our recommendations have impressed on us the need to be realistic. Some of the recommendations inevitably call for increased expenditure, and we recognise that it will take time before they can be implemented; but many could be put into operation by simple changes of practice which involve little if any increase in costs. By far the greatest number of our suggestions are intended for consideration by the schools themselves.
So much for the scope and limits of our inquiry. We pass next to the evidence on which we have been able to draw. The Committee agreed at its first meeting to obtain as complete a picture as possible of the actual practice in the schools. It was decided to draw up two questionnaires and these were completed in January 1973 by a random sample of 1,415 primary and 392 secondary schools. The survey was organised by the Secretary and Assistant Secretary to the Committee, and we are grateful for the help given them by statisticians of the Department of Education and Science, by Mr Stephen Steadman of the Schools Council, and by members of HM Inspectorate. This is the first time a survey of English on this scale has been attempted in this country. It could not have been undertaken without the willing cooperation of the local authorities and the heads and staffs of the many schools involved, and we wish to express our great appreciation of the trouble they took to help us. As the survey contains much information likely to be of interest to anyone concerned with education, we have printed the questionnaires and the results in Chapter 25, together with a commentary upon the findings.
The Committee drew up a list of 66 individuals and 56 organisations from which it wished to receive written evidence, and a shorter list of those it wished to interview. At the same time, the Chairman issued a public invitation to anyone interested to submit written evidence, an invitation of which several hundred individuals and organisations took advantage. The evidence obtained from all these sources was the foundation on which the inquiry was built, enabling the Committee to draw upon an accumulation of experience, a wealth of research - both published and unpublished - and a very wide range of opinion. We are greatly indebted to all those who generously made these available to us, often at the cost of considerable trouble to themselves in preparing papers specially for the purpose. Another valuable source of evidence has been HM Inspectorate, and we have been grateful for the opportunity to draw upon their wide experience at various points in our work.
The Committee was also, of course, able to call upon a varied experience and expert knowledge from among its own members, several of whom produced drafts or papers of various kinds. 16 of the Committee are or have been teachers, 6 are involved with the training of teachers, either in universities or in colleges of education, and 5 have undertaken and published research relevant to the subject of the inquiry. We were also fortunate to have the expert advice of Professor J Sinclair, who gave the Committee much valuable help in its discussions on the place of linguistics, and of Mr A Yates, Dr R Sumner and Mrs C Burstall, of the National Foundation for Educational Research.
Members of the Committee undertook a series of special visits to 100 schools, 21 colleges of education, and 6 reading or language centres. These visits, in various parts of the country, gave members the opportunity to see different methods of teaching and organisation and above all to talk to a large number of teachers in their classrooms. The Committee also studied, at first and second hand, the practice of certain other English-speaking countries. Evidence was received from Scotland, Canada, and the United States, and two members of the Committee, accompanied by the Secretary, paid a visit to North America, studying developments in schools, colleges, and universities. Over a period of two years the full Committee has met on 54 occasions, but the total of days devoted by individual members in visits and other kinds of consultation has run into many hundreds.
The Committee owes its gratitude to Mrs GW Dishart, its Assistant Secretary, and the members of the supporting team - Mr DA Robins, Mrs KF Briggs, Mrs P Diegeler and Mr K Price - who have been a personal help to members in so many ways throughout. To Mrs Dishart we owe particular thanks for her special contribution, not least in clarifying for the Committee all the material produced by the survey and arranging it for presentation.
The Committee's greatest debt is to its Secretary, Mr R Arnold, HMI, who has been a constant source of energy, ideas, and invention at every stage of the inquiry. Throughout its course he has produced a stimulating flow of original material and drafts for the Committee, and his wide knowledge of all the aspects of our subject of inquiry has been an invaluable resource. The ability and efficiency with which he handled a formidable volume of organisation under great pressure have impressed us all. He has crowned two years' hard work by turning the views and judgements of the Committee into a coherent Report written by a single hand.
(signed)
Alan Bullock
James Britton
Sister Basil Burbridge
JWA Burnet
June Derrick
James Fairbairn
Henry Fowler
Stuart Froome
David Gadsby
Keith Gardner
Diana M Rought Hutchcroft
Audrey Johns
Michael Marland
John E Merritt
Alan Puckey
Vera Southgate Booth
Muriel Stewart
Jack Wrigley
R Arnold, HMI (Secretary)
Plan of the report
[pages xxxv - xxxvi]
The design of the Report is intended to reflect the organic relationship between the various aspects of English, and to emphasise the need for continuity in their development throughout school life. It would have been a simple matter to deal separately with language, taking it right through the age range, and then to have done the same for reading. It would have been equally simple to divide the Report into separate sections for the primary and secondary years, each containing every aspect of the subject as it related to the needs of that particular age group. However, both these methods would have conflicted with the principle that reading, writing, talking and listening should be treated as a unity, and that there should be unbroken continuity across the years. Against this has to be balanced the need to take certain topics out of context for concentrated attention, and it becomes obvious that some compromise is the best course. The chapters are therefore arranged in such a way as to avoid rigid divisions while at the same time allowing detailed examination of a given topic or the needs of a particular age group.
Part One opens with a review of current attitudes to the teaching of English and then goes on to examine the question of standards of reading, considering evidence from the most recent NFER survey and other sources. After introducing a number of issues which will be taken up in detail in subsequent chapters, the section ends with a case for a new system of monitoring national standards of reading and writing. As the introduction makes clear, we believe that the inquiry is essentially concerned with the development of language in education, and Part Two of the Report establishes this principle. It opens with a discussion of the way in which language and learning interact and goes on to propose various measures for improving language development in young children, particularly those from home backgrounds which put them at a disadvantage in certain ways. Only when it has been determined that reading is secondary to and dependent upon the growth of language competence in the early years is it introduced as a separate topic, and this is the subject of Part Three. We have already given our reasons for going to the length of setting out in detail what is involved in the process of learning to read. Chapters 6 and 7 are entitled respectively 'The reading process' and 'Reading in the early years', and they are intended to be complementary. Indeed, there is a deliberate overlap between them, and they should be read as one for a proper understanding of what is being advocated about the teaching of reading in the early stages. By the same token they should be related to other parts of the Report where topics given separate treatment have an important bearing on the development of reading. For example, the first two chapters of Part Five deal with organisation within schools and continuity between them, and implications for the teaching of reading enter into both. Even more relevant is the opening chapter of Part Six, where there is an examination of diagnostic procedures and the way they can be used to develop reading ability. Similarly, both chapters of Part Seven have much to say about reading, from the points of view respectively of the use of books and of technological aids.
The second half of Part Three deals with the later stages of reading and with literature. It leads into a study of language at the same age level, which is the burden of Part Four, and the chapter on literature is the point of juncture. Both parts have related chapters on reading and language across the curriculum. There are thus five consecutive chapters which associate language and reading in the middle and secondary years, covering the age range 7 or 8 to 16 years.
Part Five examines organisational factors, with chapters devoted to primary and secondary schools linked by one on continuity. We have made a point of not dealing separately with middle schools, but the problems explored in relation to primary and secondary schools have equal relevance to them. The last chapter of this part of the Report extends the discussion of specialist support within the school to that of specialist support from outside, presenting a case for expanded LEA advisory services.
After the development of language and reading has been considered across the age-range and placed within the organisational framework it is possible to consider in greater detail the question of special difficulties. Thus, what is said in Part Six depends upon an acquaintance with what has gone before. The section is introduced with a chapter on preventive measures in the form of screening and diagnosis, and this is followed by a consideration of provision for children with reading difficulties in primary and secondary schools. The subject is extended into the post-school years with a discussion of adult illiteracy and the steps that might be taken to reduce it. The section concludes with an examination of the special needs of children from families of overseas origin.
Part Seven of the Report is concerned with the role of books and technological aids in the school and relates them to suggestions made in earlier chapters. The section ranges from the use of the library to educational broadcasting and contains proposals for a review of allowances. Teacher training is the last major subject and its placing in Part Eight is determined by the need to show the range of concerns of which initial and in-service training need to take account.
The concluding two sections are a presentation of the results of the survey and a summary of the Report in the form of a list of conclusions and recommendations.
Notes on the text | Chapter 1
 
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